Xm2 Scores for Estimating Total Exposure to Multimodal Strategies Identified by Pharmacists for Managing Pain: Validity Testing and Clinical Relevance
Table 2
Number of individuals using each pain management strategy identified in the study organized by low or high Xm2 score and maximum Xm2 score for each strategy.
Pain management strategy
Individuals using each strategy N (%)
Maximum Xm2 score
Total (n = 149)
Low Xm2 score (<16 points) (n = 73)
High Xm2 score (≥16 points) (n = 76)
Prescription medications
Use of an opioid
49 (32.9)
11
38
15
Codeine
3 (2.0)
1
2
2
Fentanyl
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Hydrocodone
26 (17.4)
5
21
6
Hydromorphone
1 (0.7)
0
1
7
Methadone
1 (0.7)
0
1
13
Morphine
2 (1.3)
0
2
13
Oxycodone
13 (8.7)
2
11
15
Tramadol
11 (7.4)
3
8
3
Use of a nonopioid
125 (83.9)
51
74
9
Analgesics
Acetaminophen
36 (24.2)
6
30
3
Dichloralphenazone
1 (0.7)
0
1
2
Anticonvulsants
Carbamazepine
1 (0.7)
1
0
3
Gabapentin
17 (11.4)
5
12
4
Lamotrigine
1 (0.7)
0
1
2
Levetiracetam
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Pregabalin
2 (1.3)
2
0
2
Topiramate
3 (2.0)
0
3
2
Valproic acid
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Antidepressants
Amitriptyline
8 (5.4)
2
6
7
Bupropion
1 (0.7)
0
1
2
Duloxetine
12 (8.1)
1
11
9
Fluoxetine
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Mirtazapine
1 (0.7)
0
1
2
Nortriptyline
4 (2.7)
0
4
4
Sertraline
2 (1.3)
0
2
3
Trazodone
2 (1.3)
0
2
2
Venlafaxine
4 (2.7)
0
4
6
Vilazodone
1 (0.7)
0
1
5
Antipsychotic
Quetiapine
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Barbiturate
Butalbital
3 (2.0)
0
3
5
Beta blockers
Atenolol
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Metoprolol
3 (2.0)
0
3
2
Propanolol
3 (2.0)
0
3
4
Calcium channel blockers
Amlodipine
1 (0.7)
0
1
5
Verapamil
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Muscle relaxants
Baclofen
1 (0.7)
0
1
2
Carisoprodol
9 (6.0)
1
8
5
Chlorzoxazone
1 (0.7)
0
1
2
Cyclobenzaprine
29 (19.5)
5
24
9
Metaxalone
4 (2.7)
0
4
4
Methocarbamol
6 (4.0)
1
5
2
Orphenadrine
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Tizanidine
3 (2.0)
0
3
1
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Celecoxib
9 (6.0)
0
9
5
Diclofenac
7 (4.7)
1
6
5
Etodolac
2 (1.3)
1
1
5
Ibuprofen
58 (38.9)
27
31
4
Indomethacin
2 (1.3)
0
2
2
Meloxicam
12 (8.1)
1
11
5
Nabumetone
4 (2.7)
1
3
4
Naproxen
37 (24.8)
13
24
4
Salsalate
2 (1.3)
0
2
2
Sulindac
1 (0.7)
1
0
3
Tolmetin
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Sedatives
Alprazolam
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Diazepam
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Lorazepam
2 (1.3)
0
2
1
Steroids
Methylprednisolone
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Prednisolone
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Triptans
Eletriptan
3 (2.0)
0
3
3
Naratriptan
1 (0.7)
0
1
3
Rizatriptan
4 (2.7)
1
3
2
Sumatriptan
5 (3.4)
0
5
3
Zolmitriptan
2 (1.3)
1
1
3
Others
Caffeine
3 (2.0)
0
3
1
Isometheptene
1 (0.7)
0
1
2
Nonprescription medications
Acetaminophen
64 (43.0)
28
36
1
Aspirin
16 (10.7)
8
8
1
Benadryl
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Excedrin
2 (1.3)
1
1
1
Famotidine
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Herbals
16 (10.7)
7
9
1
NSAIDs
95 (63.8)
48
47
1
Supplement
11 (7.4)
3
8
1
Medical strategies
Chiropractor
32 (21.5)
12
20
1
Nasal spray
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Other injections
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Patch
2 (1.3)
0
2
1
Surgery
31 (20.8)
5
26
1
Steroid injections
50 (33.6)
10
40
1
Topical products
15 (10.1)
5
10
1
Physical strategies
Acupuncture
21 (14.1)
6
15
1
Massage
92 (61.7)
39
53
1
Physical activity
105 (70.5)
44
61
1
Physical therapy
81 (54.4)
27
54
1
Stretching
5 (3.4)
5
0
1
TENS
51 (34.2)
14
37
1
Psychological strategies
Meditation
42 (28.2)
12
30
1
Relaxation
89 (59.7)
31
58
1
Self-initiated strategies
Alcohol
1 (0.7)
1
0
1
Avoid specific activities
104 (69.8)
43
61
1
Cannabis/Heroin
3 (2.0)
0
3
1
Changing body position
132 (88.6)
61
71
1
Diet
3 (2.0)
2
1
1
Education
38 (25.5)
12
26
1
Essential oils
1 (0.7)
0
1
1
Hot bath or shower
96 (64.4)
39
57
1
Hot or cold packs
99 (66.4)
36
63
1
Rest
125 (83.9)
56
69
1
Unspecified
59 (39.6)
27
32
1
TENS = transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. The minimum score is 0 in all cases. Indicates the strategy was also identified in the literature. An Xm2 score of 5 indicates that item is being used at 100 to 124% of the recommended maximum exposure (RME).