Social Learning in Bumblebees (Bombus impatiens): Worker Bumblebees Learn to Manipulate and Forage at Artificial Flowers by Observation and Communication within the Colony

Table 1

Statistical values from repeated one-way Analysis of Variance of the findings from experiments in which dead bees were used as models to aid in the learning process for foraging by living bees, in which living bees were able to watch other living bees (nestmates and nonnestmates) forage to aid in the learning process and in which living bees which had no opportunity to observe models or other living bees foraging learned to forage by within-colony communication.

Source of variation	Degrees of; freedom	Sum of; squares	Mean squares	𝐹 value	Probability
Using dead bees in the foraging position on the artificial flowers (Figure 3)
Between bees	9	992368	110263
Between trials	9	7234272	803808	19.68	<0.001
Residual	81	3306794	40824
Total	99	11533434
Watching nestmates (Figure 4)
Between bees	8	5425	678.1
Between trials	9	30850	3427.83	10.74	<0.001
Residual	72	22961	318.91
Total	89	59237
Watching nonnestmates (Figure 5)
Between bees	8	3948	493.55
Between trials	9	38014	4223.78	7.69	<0.001
Residual	72	39528	549
Total	89	81490
Communication within the domicile (Figure 6)
Between bees	8	20619	2577.37
Between trials	9	286156	31795.11	21.37	<0.001
Residual	72	107107	1487.61
Total	89	413882
The difference between four groups of tested bees
Between learning type	3	105010	35003.61
Between trial	9	331231	36803.44	2.30	0.046
Residual	27	431755	15990.95
Total	39	867997