Graphene: A Versatile Carbon-Based Material for Bone Tissue Engineering

Table 1

Summary of studies using graphene for osteogenesis.

Material	Analysis	Outcomes	Reference
rGO-Chitosan	SEM, Alizarin Red staining, and immunofluorescence	The differentiation on rGO-chitosan substrate was higher than the ones obtained on the chitosan substrata and polystyrene regardless of the use of osteogenic induction media	[21]
rGO-PEDOT	Immunofluorescence staining, Alizarin Red S staining	The multifunctional rGO-PEDOT bioelectronic interface was used for manipulating attachment and orientation of MSC. The device acted as a drug releasing model under electrical modulation	[83]
GO	Immunofluorescence, microcomputed tomography, and Goldner trichrome	The osteogenetic differentiation of human BMMSCs on Ti/GO substrate was higher compared to Ti substrate	[84]
GONR, rGONR	Immunofluorescence staining and Alizarin Red staining	Graphene nanogrids increase the osteogenic differentiation of BMSC; the differentiation coincides with the patterns of the nanogrids	[45]
CVD	Immunofluorescence staining	The cells adhered and proliferated more on CVD-grown graphene than on SiO2 substrates	[46]
CVD, GO	Immunofluorescence staining and Alizarin Red staining	Graphene was capable of preconcentrating osteogenic differentiation factors. GO strongly enhances adipogenic differentiation	[33]
CVD	Cell viability assay, immunofluorescence staining, and Alizarin Red staining	CVD-grown graphene allowed the proliferation of MSC and increased the differentiation towards osteoblast	[47]
3DGp	Immunofluorescence staining and SEM	3DGp maintains MSC viability and promotes osteogenic differentiation without the use of chemical inducers	[52]
CaS-G	MTT, SEM, and RT-PCR	Cell adhesion was enhanced by adding 1.5% of graphene to the material as compared to the calcium silicate alone	[72]
SGH	MTT, H & E, immunofluorescence staining, and Alizarin staining	The self-supporting graphene hydrogel (SGH) film allows cell adhesion and proliferation and accelerates the osteogenic differentiation without chemical inducer	[66]
GO-CaP	Alizarin Red S staining RT PCR and immunofluorescence	The GO-CaP nanocomposite exhibited superior osteoinductivity compared to individual or combined effects of GO and CaP	[73]
Carbon nanotubes and graphene	SEM, Elisa, and H & E staining	Cells in PLLA composite scaffolds containing 3% wt of graphene presented higher expression of osteogenesis-related proteins, calcium deposition, and the formation of type I collagen	[80]
Graphene hydrogel	MTT and SEM	Graphene 3D hydrogel allows cell proliferation and attachment confirming the biocompatibility of the graphene hydrogel scaffolds	[82]