Current Trends in Biomaterial Utilization for Cardiopulmonary System Regeneration

Table 2

The current applications of nanotechnology and tissue engineering in cardiac regeneration.

Biomaterials		Experimental studies			References
Classification	Subclassification	In vitro	In vivo	Clinical trials
Nanotechnology	Cardiac patch production	Yamato and Okano (2004): grafting poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) to a culture surface that is thermoresponsive in order to produce scaffold-free cardiac tissue.	Jang et al. (2017): 3D-printed prevascularized stem cell patch with CSC and MSC improved cardiomyogenesis and neovascularization.	None reported.	[172, 175–177]
		Fleischer et al. (2014): poly(ε-caprolactone), dichloromethane, and dimethylformamide which was electrospun resembled perimysial fibers.	Gaebel et al. (2011): PEUU seeded with hMSC and HUVEC enhanced capillary density.
	Improving drug and therapy delivery systems	Cheng et al. (2016): 5-azacytidine delivered by FMNSs induced the differentiation of P19 cells to CM.	Change et al. (2013): the PLGA-IGF-1 NP complex showed increased IGF-1 retention, induced the phosphorylation of Akt, and provided early cardioprotection postmyocardial infarction.	None reported.	[189, 198–200, 212]
		Oh et al. (2006); Lee and Yuk (2007): a pluronic-based micelle and liposomal system was developed and designed as a core/shell NP with a lecithin core loaded with a growth factor and a pluronic shell and showed prospect in drug delivery.	Pascual-Gil et al. (2015): intramyocardial injection of NP-liraglutide in a rat model of myocardial infarction sufficiently improved cardiac function.
	Nanoparticles and magnets: role in stem cell retention	None reported.	Vadergriff et al. (2014): ferumoxytol NPs in the presence of heparin and protamine were used to label stem cells.	None reported.	[215, 216]
			Zhang et al. (2012): MNBs/AdhVEGF complex showed significant improvement in left ventricular function.
	Differentiation of endometrial stem cells	Barabadi et al. (2016) showed that endometrial stem cells can be conveniently programmed into CM.	None reported.	None reported.	[217, 219]
	Loss-of-function studies	None reported.	Diao et al. (2015): on a zebrafish model, retinoic acid signaling was compromised by siAldh1a2 therapy.	None reported.	[220]
Tissue engineering		Sidorov et al. (2017): identified the potentials of the “I-wire” platform in controlling the applied force on ECTCs while cross-examining their inactive and active mechanical and electrical characteristics.	Emmert et al. (2017): rapid fabrication of fibrous, semilunar heart valve scaffolds for the ovine model.		[223, 226]