| | Mesenchymal stem cells | MSC source | Markers | Differentiation potential | Advantages | Disadvantages | | Positive | Negative |
| | BMSCs | Bone marrow aspirate [166] | CD29, CD44, CD73, CD90, CD105 CD166, Sca-1, and CD106 [548–551] | CD14, CD34, CD45, CD19, CD11b, CD31, and HLA-DR [548–551] | Adipocyte, astrocyte, cardiomyocytes, chondrocyte, hepatocyte, mesangial cells, myocytes, neuron, osteoblast, and stromal cell [552] | (i) Superior osteogenic and chondrogenic potential [142].
(ii) Multiple studies confirmed safety and efficacy of this type of cells [552]. | (i) Bone marrow harvesting is invasive [143].
(ii) Fewer number of mesenchymal progenitors cells and lower proliferation rate as compared to MSCs from other sources [144, 145]. |
| | ADSCs | Adipose tissue obtained from liposuction [553] | CD29, CD44, CD13, CD166, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD34, CD49e, and CD10 [551, 554, 555] | CD31, CD45, CD14, CD11b, CD34, CD19, CD56, CD146, and HLA-DR [551, 554, 555] | Adipocytes, chondrocyte, myocytes,osteoblast, stromal cell [552] | (i) Less invasive isolation procedure [147].
(ii) Yield more progenitor cells [148, 149].
(iii) Have a higher proliferation rate as compared to BMSCs [145, 150]. | (i) Adipogenic differentiation tendency [153, 154].
(ii) Low proangiogenic factors and cytokine secretion as compared to BMSCs [155, 156]. |
| | Dental stem cells | (i) Dental pulp stem cells isolated from dental pulp tissues of permanent teeth
(ii) Pulp tissues of human shed deciduous teeth (SHED)
(iii) Periodontal ligament stem cells isolated from periodontal tissues
(iv) Dental follicle stem cells usually isolated from dental follicle surrounding third molar
(v) Alveolar bone-derived stem cells, stem cells isolated from apical papilla at the apices of immature permanent teeth
(vi) Tooth germ progenitor cells isolated from late bell stage third molar’s tooth germs
(vi) Gingival stem cells, isolated from gingival tissues [18]. | CD105, CD73, and CD90 [164]. | CD45, CD34, CD14, CD11b, CD79a, CD19, and HLA-DR [164] | Osteoblasts, chondroblasts, adipocytes, neuron, and angiogenic potential [161, 164] | (i) Relatively easier to isolate during routine dental treatments without teeth scarification [161]
(ii) Possess higher proliferation rates, as compared to either BMSCs or ASCs [162, 163]. | (i) Some types are inaccessible to isolate
(ii) Difficult to isolate in sufficient amount
(iii) Not readily feasible throughout the patient’s life [165]. |
| | Perinatal tissues | Placenta MSCs | Human placenta [556, 557] | CD29, CD44, CD9, CD105, and CD166 [558] | CD34 and HLA-DR [558] | Hepatocytes, osteoblasts, adipocytes, insulin-producing cells, cardiomyocytes, and myoblasts [559, 560] | (i) Perinatal stem cells are acquired in a noninvasive manner.
(ii) Perinatal stem cells are easily acquired from a material that was for long considered as medical waste
(iii) They possess high proliferative rates
(iv) Perinatal stem cells exhibit longer culture times, higher expansion, and delayed senescence and display high differentiation potential; additionally, placenta and umbilical cord provide a large number of progenitors as compared to MSCs from other sources [61, 166–170]. | (i) Placental stem cell safety, contamination, tumorigenic transformation, and cellular changes following cell culture still merit further studying.
(ii) Standardization of laboratory isolation protocols is still required [179]. | | Umbilical cord MSCs | MSCs can be acquired from Wharton’s jelly or umbilical cord blood [561]. | CD29, CD44, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD106, CD117, CD133, and CD166 [562] | CD31, CD34, CD86, and HLA-DR [562] | Osteoblast, adipocytes, chondrocytes, hepatocytes, insulin-producing cells, cardiomyocytes, and neurons [563] | | (i) Isolation and culture of stem cells from the umbilical cord are difficult
(ii) Private banking is expensive and lacks strict regulations
(iii) Lifelong storage is still unstudied [171]. | | Umbilical cord blood MSCs | Cord blood is isolated prior to or immediately after delivery. It contains MSCs [561] | CD29, CD44, CD73, CD90, CD105, and CD166 [564, 565] | CD14, CD31, CD34, CD45, CD106, and HLA-DR [564, 565] | Osteoblast, adipocytes, chondrocytes, and myoblasts [566] | | (i) Slow engraftment as compared to bone marrow [173].
(ii) Limited volume [176, 177]
(iii) Low stem cell yield [178]
(iv) Private banking is expensive and lacks strict regulations [172, 173].
(v) Lifelong storage is still unstudied [174, 175]. |
|
|
