Mesenchymal Stem Cell–Immune Cell Interaction and Related Modulations for Bone Tissue Engineering

Figure 1

Schematic illustration of the regulation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) by immune cells in bone regeneration. The positive effect of immune cells on MSCs is important for bone regeneration. Immune cells can promote or inhibit the recruitment, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of MSCs. Soluble factors secreted by immune cells play an important role in this process. Abbreviations: MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; MIP-1: macrophage inflammatory protein 1; CCL5: C-C chemokine ligand type 5; IL-8: interleukin-8; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha; NAP-2: neutrophil activating protein 2; ROS: reactive oxygen species; NETs: neutrophil extracellular traps; IFN-γ: interferon-gamma; TGF-β: transforming growth factor-beta; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; BMP-2: bone morphogenetic protein 2; Runx-2: Runt-related transcriptional factor 2; PGE2: prostaglandin E2; OSM: oncostatin M; ALP: alkaline phosphatase; Tregs: regulatory T cells. Created with BioRender.com.