[Retracted] ECC-Based Authenticated Key Exchange Protocol for Fog-Based IoT Networks

Iqbal, Ummer; Bhola, Jyoti; Jayasudha, M.; Ahmad, Mohd Wazih; Neware, Rahul; Yadav, Arvind R.; Gelana, Fraol Waldamichael

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7264803

Security and Communication Networks

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Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2022 | Article ID 7264803 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7264803

[Retracted] ECC-Based Authenticated Key Exchange Protocol for Fog-Based IoT Networks

Ummer Iqbal,¹Jyoti Bhola,²M. Jayasudha,³Mohd Wazih Ahmad,⁴Rahul Neware,⁵Arvind R. Yadav,⁶and Fraol Waldamichael Gelana⁷

Academic Editor: Mukesh Soni

Received11 Mar 2022

Revised25 Apr 2022

Accepted10 May 2022

Published22 Jun 2022

Abstract

Fog computing is one of the prominent technology that bridges the gap between IoT nodes and cloud servers. For increasing the efficiency at the fog level, a fog federation can be employed. Fog federation at the fog level can be controlled by the fog coordinator. However, the information exchange between the fog coordinator and IoT nodes needs to be secured. Recently, a lightweight secure key exchange (LKSE) protocol for secure key exchange for fog federation was proposed. In this paper, the cryptanalysis of the LKSE is carried out. The cryptanalysis indicates that LKSE is vulnerable to spoofing and man in the middle attacks. To overcome the limitation of the LKSE, a design of an ECC-based secure key exchange protocol for IoT devices and fog coordinators is proposed. The security strength of the designed method has been evaluated using BAN logic and the random oracle model. Simulations on AVISPA have been performed for automatic security verification of the proposed method. A detailed security and functional comparison of the proposed scheme with LKSE have also been carried out.

1. Introduction

IoT-based smart city applications have acquired significant attraction over the years [1–4]. The various IoT-based smart applications include smart water, smart health, smart grid, etc. The introduction of the Internet of Things (IoT) has resulted in an unprecedented creation of massive and diverse amounts of data, referred to as data explosions [5]. On the other hand, while cloud computing has been an effective means to process and store this data, difficulties such as real-time access, latency, and network capacity limitations need to be handled if cloud computing is employed. To solve this issue, a new computing paradigm called fog computing has been proposed [6]. Fog computing brings cloud services to the network’s edge, thus improving low-latency, mobility, network bandwidth, security, and privacy.

A typical fog computing block diagram is shown in Figure 1 [7]. The architecture comprises the end device layer, fog layer, and cloud computing layer. In the end device layer, smart devices are deployed to monitor and sense various attributes depending upon the context of the application. The end device layer typically involves resource constraint devices. Because of the resource constraint nature, the security with in the device layer is an emerging research area. The fog layer comprises of fog nodes. The fog node [6] is the core component of the fog layer. Fog nodes are strongly associated with smart end devices. Fog nodes can be set as stand-alone fog nodes that interact among themselves to supply the service or can be federated to build clusters to implement a certain fog computing capability. The cloud layer comprises of different servers which can be utilized for online/offline analysis, etc. Some of the applications of fog computing include linked vehicles, smart grids and smart cities, and real-time analytics.

The security of the sensed data sent from the end device layer to fog nodes is of paramount importance and is an active area of research. The primary security requirements of the data communicated between smart end-devices and fog nodes include confidentiality, integrity, data freshness, and authentication of the sensed data. Confidentiality of the sensor data ensures that the data in the legitimate form are accessible only to the intended receiver [8]. If an attacker can eavesdrop on the message exchanges, confidentiality must ensure that the eavesdropped messages cannot be deciphered. Confidentially is enforced using encryption and decryption techniques. The encryption technique scrambles the sensed data in such a way that intended receiver with proper decryption process can recover the sensed data. The integrity authentication of the sensed data ensures that the sensed data messages are not altered in transit by an adversary [9]. An authentication mechanism is required to validate and verify whether the legitimate network entities are communicating with each other or not. Nonrepudiation guarantees the responsibility of action. Any security protocol targeting low power nodes must oblige to its constraints [10, 11] and must be formally verified [12].

The bedrock of the security requirements discussed above is a secure authenticated key exchange between end devices and the fog nodes. Schemes have been presented in the literature for secure key establishment. Sun et al. [13], Jia et al. [14], Wahid et al. [15], Chen et al. [16], Zheng and Chang [17], and Chen et al. [18] proposed some of the schemes which are reported to be safe and support authenticated key exchange. However, all these schemes are not suitable for the fog federation environment [19, 20]. CE-SKE [19] and LKSE [20] are some of the recent schemes proposed for secure key exchange in the fog federation. CE-SKE claims to support mutual authentication and key exchange; however, this scheme is not lightweight. The second scheme called as LKSE is an improved scheme in terms of efficiency as it is based on elliptical curve cryptography. However, it can be shown that both schemes are vulnerable to spoofing attacks and man the middle attack.

In this paper, a lightweight ECC-based authenticated key exchange scheme has been presented. The proposed scheme is resilient to all major security attacks while being functionally optimal in terms of resource overheads. The paper reviews the LKSE scheme in terms of security limitation and proposes a design of lightweight authenticated key exchange scheme which overcomes the limitations of LKSE.

1.1. Elliptical Curve Cryptography

An Elliptical Curve over a finite prime field is defined as (1):

The computational hardness of the elliptical curve cryptography is based on the elliptical curve discrete log problem (ECDLP). Given two points and such that: where is a scalar, ECDLP states that it is computationally infeasible to find n [10, 11].

1.2. Contributions

The contributions of the paper are as follows:(1)A review and cryptanalysis of the LKSE have been made carried out to indicate that the scheme is vulnerable to various attacks.(2)ECC-based secure key exchange protocol for IoT devices and fog coordinator is proposed with better specifications as compared to the existing schemes.(3)The proposed scheme has been formally validated using AVISPA [21, 22]. The verification results indicate that the scheme is safe and is resilient to man in the middle attack and replay attack.(4)The validity of the proposed protocol has also been evaluated using BAN logic [23].

1.3. Paper Organization

The remainder of the paper is laid out as follows. Section 2 reviews and highlights the weaknesses of the LSKE Scheme. In Section 3, the details of the designed protocol are presented. In Section 4, security analysis of the designed scheme has been presented. AVISPA simulation details are presented in Section 5. BAN logic analysis has been carried out in Section 6. Finally, in Section 7, the comparative analysis of the designed scheme is presented.

2. Review and Weakness of the LSKE Scheme

2.1. Review of the LSKE Scheme

The key exchange steps between the end device node and the fog center in the LSKE scheme is given as below: Step 1: The node computes as in (3) and sends it to the fog center. Step 2: The fog center checks ▲_T, if true, then it performs the following:(1)Stores the .(2)Chooses the numbers and .(3)Calculate equations , and as (4)–(10): Step 3: Fog center sends to node Step 4: The node checks: ▲_T, if true then it performs the following:(1)Compute , check , if true, then store .(2)Compute , check , if true, then store .(3)Compute , check , if true, then store . Step 5: The node selects a random number and obtains as follows: Step 6: The node calculates the common key as follows: Step 7: The node calculates and and sends it to fog center: Step 8: Fog center computes , check , check ▲_T, then calculate

2.2. Cryptanalysis of the LSKE Scheme

In this section, the cryptanalysis of the LSKE scheme has been carried out. Considering an active adversary α in the middle, α can spoof the messages and subsequently launch man in the middle attack as given below: Step 1: The node computes as (15) and sends it to the fog center. Step 2: Adversary α, intercepts the message and performs the following steps:(1)Selects a public key .(2)Computes .(3)Sends to fog center Step 3: The fog center checks ▲_T, which evaluates to be true. The fog center then performs the following:(1)Stores the key.(2)Chooses the numbers and .(3)Calculates equations , and as (16)–(22): Step 4: Fog center sends to the fog node Step 5: Adversary α intercepts the message and performs the following steps:(1)Decrypts: using the private key.(2)Adversary α selects a random number and obtains as follows:(3)Adversary α calculates the common key with the fog center as (24): Step 6: Adversary α calculates and and sends it to the fog center: Step 7: Fog center decrypts and compute , check , check ▲_T, calculate (26) Step 8: Adversary α, further performs the following functions(1)Adversary α selects a random number and obtains as follows:(2)Selects a public key .(3)Chooses the numbers .(4)Calculate equations and as follows: Step 9: The node decrypts , first checks the time stamp with ▲_T, if true then it performs the following:(1)Compute , check , if true, store .(2)Compute , check , if true, store .(3)Compute , check , if true, store . Step 10: The node selects a random number NA and obtains PA as follows: Step 11: The node calculates the common key as follows: Step 12: The node calculates A2 and H4 and sends it to the fog center: Step 13: Adversary α intercepts the message and performs the following steps:(1)Decrypt using (2)Compute , check , check ▲_T, calculate (34):

From the above cryptanalysis, we understand that an adversary α, by spoofing the message exchange can execute a Man-in-the-Middle-Attack. Attacker α forms a shared key with the fog center, wherein the fog center believes that is key formed with the fog node and forms a shared key with the fog node, wherein the fog node believes that is key formed with the node fog center. The genesis of this attack originates from the fact that there is no complete integrity check on the messages being exchanged as such an adversary α was able to manipulate and spoof the messages.

3. Proposed Scheme

In this section, the ECC-based scheme for secure key exchange protocol for Iota devices and fog coordinator is proposed. The design of the protocol is based on elliptical curve cryptography. The notations used are listed in Table 1. The various phases in the proposed access control protocol include the setup and initialization phase, fog node registration phase, fog center registration phase, and authentication and key establishment Phase.

3.1. Setup and Initialization Phase

The certification authority performs the system setup phase. The various steps undertaken in this phase are as follows:(i) chooses an elliptical curve; defined as is chosen where a and and P is a large prime number.(ii)The chooses and computes , where

3.2. Fog Node Registration Phase

(i)For each IoT node, _, chooses and calculates (ii) creates a signature point for each as (35): where is the version of the signature and guards its freshness. Initially, the for each redeployment of the is incremented by 1.(iii) computes the ECDSA signature for each as (36): The ECDSA signature computed using the private key of the is to thwart any spoofing or malicious manipulation of authentication and key establishment request and response messages between the deployed node and its neighbors. The evaluation of during the authentication and key establishment phase ensures that messages exchanged are authentic and their integrity is maintained.(iv) preloads each IoT node, with the following:

and

3.3. Fog Centre Registration Phase

(i) chooses and calculates for Fog central node-(ii) creates a signature point for as (37): where is the version of the signature and guards its freshness.(iii) computes the ECDSA signature for as (38):(iv) stores the following:

and .

3.4. Authentication and Key Establishment Phase

The authentication and key establishment phases undertaken between and the are detailed below:(i) sends the authentication and key establishment request to (ii) verifies the integrity and the authenticity of by computing: If the verification check evaluates to be false, no processing is done, and the request is rejected. However, if the verification check evaluates to be true, Step iii is performed.(iii) authenticates by performing the following computational steps:(a) calculates V = where are received through (b) performs the scalar multiplication of and V as (41):(c) calculates the authentication point as (42):(d) compares where is received through . If true, then from is validated and step iv is performed; otherwise, the phase is aborted.(iv) computes key with as follows:(v) sends authentication and key establishment response as follows::(vi) verifies the integrity and the authenticity of by computing the following: If the verification check evaluates to be false, no processing is done, and the request is rejected. However, if the verification check evaluates to be true, Step viii is performed.(vii) is authenticates by performing the following computational steps:(a) calculates V = where are received through (b) performs the scalar multiplication of and V as (46):(c) calculates the authentication point as (47):(d) compares where is received through . If true, then from is validated and step v is performed; otherwise, the phase is aborted.(viii) computes key with as 60(ix) chooses a nonce , computes and sends the following to the :(x) receives and decrypts as . further calculates using the obtained by decrypting and verifies . If is true, the authentication and key exchange process is completed.

4. Security Analysis

4.1. Informal Security Analysis

In this section, the proposed protocol has been evaluated on some of the major security requirements as indicated in [13–20](a)Eavesdropping and false injection attacks: To prevent the eavesdropping and the false injection of sensed data, a shared key is established between the and the as follows: The key can be used with any lightweight cipher to provide basic security primitives of confidentiality, integrity, and authentication of the sensed data.(b)Impersonation attack: During the setup, and the initialization phase, each node is preloaded with the following key material: Let us assume that the is captured by an adversary . has access to all the preloaded material of the . The complete network security will get compromised if the private key of is extracted. The private key is used in the and . However, the adversary cannot extract the private of from and due to the computational hardness of the elliptical discrete logarithm problem [24–26].(c)Man-in-the-Middle-Attack: Suppose attacker wants to undertake a MITM Attack between a and . To accomplish so, must fabricate , and , so that and recognize them as authentic signatures. Due to ECDLP [24–26], it is computationally impossible for to fake , and , ; hence, MIMA is prevented in the proposed protocol.(d)Replay attacks: Let us say is an old authentication request of .The scheme design causes the request to be refused if replayed later as the signature version is maintained. Let gets the replayed request . checks to see if . If true, the request is rejected else, it is accepted.(e)Spoofing attack: The resistance against spoofing attacks is provided using ECDSA verification. The ECDSA [25] signature pair pair sent along with request and response authentication messages between the new node and the neighboring nodes ensures the integrity authentication of the messages exchanged. In the proposed protocol, broadcasts the authentication request to become part of the network. Any neighbor node who receives the message, before processing further to determine the legitimacy of the node and subsequently to form the shared key, verifies the authenticity and the integrity of the received broadcast using

Any spoofing or modification of the broadcast would be detected by the neighboring nodes which in turn would result in the rejection of the broadcast before any further processing is done. Thus, the use of ECDSA signature to ensure the integrity and the authenticity of the messages exchanged in the proposed protocol provides a strong resilience against spoofing attacks.

4.2. Security Proof

Theorem 1. The design of the proposed scheme is resilient to impersonation attack malicious node deployment, man in the middle attack, and spoofing attack: under the ECDLP assumption.

Proof. The proof is based on [27–29]. Let us define the following oracles for the adversary :(i): outputs the using and as input.(ii): outputs the using and as input.(iii): outputs the using and as input.(iv): generate the for (v): generate the for runs the experiment as shown in Figure 2. The success of the experiment is defined as follows:Accordingly, the advantage is defined as follows:where in maximum is taken over all execution t, is the number of queries to the , , is the number of queries to the , is the number of queries to the , is the number of queries to . The proposed protocol would be secure against malicious node deployment attacks if:Based on the experiment shown in Figure 2, can extract the private key of and . Subsequently, the adversary generates and . However, as per the ECDLP definition, extracting and is a computationally infeasible problem. Thus, we can conclude the following:The proposed scheme provides a strong resilience to malicious node deployment.

5. AVISPA Simulation

With the help of AVISPA simulation, we prove that the proposed scheme is resistant to man-in-the-middle and replay attacks.

5.1. HLPSL Specification of the Proposed Scheme

In this section, the HLPSL model of the proposed access control scheme is discussed. The authentication and the key exchange between the and the are modeled by defining their corresponding HLPSL roles. The HLPSL model of the is given in Figure 3. The role_FogDevice is played by agent A. The RCV (start) in state 0 of the role_FogDevice initiates the simulation. On receiving the start, agent A sends the using the SND() operation. SND and RCV are defined as a channel (dy). Channel (dy) defines the Dolev and Yoa threat model in which the communication channel is completely insecure. In-state 0, is specified to be a secrecy goal identified by protocol_id type seed_Ki. The roleNewNode in state 1, on receiving the response using the RCV() from , sends and the conjunction, witness(A,B,bob_alice_na,Ni)) is validated. Witness (A, B, bob_alice_na, Ni) demands a weak authentication of by , where is witness to the information given by , i.e., Ni’. Bob_alice_na identifies this property in the goal section defined in the environment role.

The HLPSL model of the is given in Figure 4. The role_FogCentre is played by agent B. On receiving using RCV(), agent B, sends using SND() operation. The is specified to be a secrecy goal identified by protocol_id type seed_KJ. request(B,A,bob_alice_na,Ni) is a strong authentication where is a witness of the Ni for and is identified by bob_alice_na in the goal section. The role session and environment are shown in Figure 5. A session is a composing role instantiating one or more basic roles. The composed role does not have a transition section. /\ is used to indicate the basic role that runs in parallel. Role A and B are initiated in parallel as shown in Figure 5.

5.2. Simulation Results

The HLPSL code of the proposed protocol was simulated on SPAN, which is the simulation animator for AVISPA. The corresponding message sequence chart on SPAN depicts 02 messages being exchanged, as shown in Figure 6. The HLPSL model of the proposed protocol has been verified on the OFMC backend. OFMC backend employs symbolic techniques to create on-the-fly state representation. OFMC provides fast detection of attacks in a bounded number of sessions. To verify the replay attack in the proposed scheme, the backend performs a search of a passive intruder. The simulation results on the OFMC backend are shown in Figure 7. Thus, the AVISPA verification of the scheme indicates that the scheme is SAFE. The search time is 0.25 sec and the number of nodes visited is 3 with a depth of 2.

6. BAN Logic Analysis

and represent the communicating parties, where and denote their private keys, respectively. The BAN notations are given in Table 2 [30], and the BAN postulates are tabulated in Table 3. Synthesis rules are tabulated in Table 4 [31].

6.1. Assumptions

The assumptions are listed below: (AS1) (AS2) (AS3) (AS4) (AS5) (AS6)

6.2. Idealized Form

6.3. Goals

(G1) . (G2) (G3) . (G4)

6.4. BAN Verification of the Proposed Protocol

From (M1), we infer the following:(1)(2) From (2), (AS2) and (R1), we obtain as below:(3) is a part of ; from (AS5) and (R6), we obtain as below:(4) From 3 and 4, we obtain as below:(5) From (5) and (SR4), we obtain as below:(6) From (3), (6), and (R2), we obtain as below:(7) is a part of ; from (R5), we obtain as below:(8) From (SR3) and (3), we obtain as below:(9) From (AS5) and (9), we obtain as below:(10) From (RS4) and (10), we obtain as below:(11) is a part of ; from (R6), we obtain as below:(12) From (10), (12), and (R7), we obtain as below:(13) Due to the symmetry of the protocol,(14) From (M2), we infer that(15)(16) From (16), (AS2), and (R1), we obtain as below:(17) is a part of ; from (AS5) and (R6), we obtain as below:(18) From 17 and 18, we obtain as below:(19) From (19) and (SR4), we obtain as below:(20) From (17), (20), and (R2), we obtain as below:(21) is a part of ; from (R5), we obtain as below:(22) From (SR3) and (17), we obtain as below:(23) From (AS5) and (23), we obtain as below:(24) From (RS4) and (24), we obtain as below:(25) is a part of ;from (R6), we obtain as below:(26) From (25), (26), and (R7), we obtain as below:(27) Due to the symmetry of the protocol,(28)

7. Comparison with Other Schemes

To draw a comparison of the computational cost between the LKSE and the proposed scheme, the various computational operations considered include Hash Operation , ECC Point Addition , ECC Scalar multiplication , Public key Encryption , Public Key Decryption , Symmetric key Encryption , Symmetric Key Decryption , ECDSA-Verification: , and Modular Inverse . The comparison of the computational cost in terms of computational operation is shown in Table 5. The total no of operations for the proposed scheme is: and LKSE is . From Table 5, we can infer that as the proposed scheme does include any public-key encryption and decryption; thus, the computational cost of the proposed scheme is less than LKSE. The size of each message exchanged is shown in Table 6. The total communication cost in the proposed scheme is 2144 bits. The energy consumed for the computational operators on the MicaZ [32] node is depicted in Table 7 [33]. The time taken for public-key encryption and decryption on MicaZ is 0.79 s and 21.5 s [34]. Thus, on a MicaZ mote, the required energy for public key encryption and decryption is 18.96 mJ and 516 mJ respectively. The communication overhead comparison is shown in Figure 8. The energy overhead comparison is shown in Figure 9. The highest communication and energy overhead is that of CE-SKE with 3072 bits and 1606.56 mJ. The high energy overhead in CE-SKE and LKSE scheme is owing to the use of and . From Figures 8 and 9, it can be inferred that the proposed protocol has low communication and computational overheads as compared to the CE-SKE and LKSE schemes.

The security comparison is shown in Table 8. The cryptanalysis of LKSE indicates that an adversary can spoof the message exchange and as such can execute a man in the middle attack. The genesis of this attack originates from the fact that there is no complete integrity check on the messages being exchanged as such an adversary was able to manipulate and spoof the messages. As a result of this design flaw, LKSE is not resilient to a man-in-the-middle attack, impersonation attack, and does not support mutual authentication and message integrity. In the proposed protocol, it is computationally impossible for an adversary to fake and ; hence, MIMA and impersonation attack are prevented in the proposed protocol. The design of the proposed scheme also achieves mutual authentication and message integrity using and .

Thus, with the analysis presented, it can be inferred that the proposed scheme with the energy overhead of 210.66 mJ and communication overhead of 2144 bits conforms to all security specifications.

8. Conclusion

The security of sensed data sent from end fog nodes to the fog center is critical and an active area of research. A secure authenticated key exchange between the fog nodes and the fog center is an essential security requirement. Recently, the LKSE scheme for secure key exchange in fog federations was presented. In this paper, a brief review and cryptanalysis of LKSE has been presented. The cryptanalysis indicates that an active adversary can carry out spoofing of the messages, thus resulting in a man in the middle attack. In this paper, a lightweight ECC-based key exchange mechanism for fog federation has been presented. A detailed informal and formal security analysis of the proposed scheme indicates that the scheme is safe from various attacks. The overhead analysis depicts that the proposed scheme requires an energy overhead of 210.66 mJ and communication overhead of 2144 bits while conforming to the desired security specifications.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are included in the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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Copyright © 2022 Ummer Iqbal et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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