Identifying the Potential Causes, Consequences, and Prevention of Communicable Diseases (Including COVID-19)

Table 4

VAR Granger causality by the Wald test.

Bidirectional relationship	Unidirectional relationship
∑COMD↔∑HSWF	∑LBHWF→∑COMD	∑HEXP→∑CHM
∑CO2↔POV	∑HSWF→∑GDPPC	∑HEXP→∑LCUSE
	∑CO2→∑PDEN	∑LCC→∑PDEN
	∑CO2→∑HEXP	∑EUSE→∑PDEN
	∑GDPPC→∑CO2	∑COVID→∑FFUEL
		∑COMD→∑FFUEL

Note: → shows the one-way causal relationship and ⟷ shows the bidirectional causal relationship.