Simultaneous Dual-Task Interventions That Improve Cognition in Older Adults: A Scoping Review of Implementation-Relevant Details

Table 2

Ways in which the studied interventions were effective ().

Study	Intervention type	Cognitive domains assessed (as stated in individual studies)	Cognitive measures that improved statistically significantly (within and between group differences)	Effect sizes (within and between group differences)	Effectiveness timeframe	Reported adverse outcomes
[28] Anderson-Hanley et al.	Cybercycle exergame group	Executive function; Visuospatial function; Attention; Verbal fluency; Verbal memory; Neuroplasticity	Between groups: colour trails, digit span backward, neuroplasticity assessment and Stroop C.; Within group: colour trails, digit span backward, neuroplasticity assessment and Stroop C	Between groups: (ηp^2); large effect size: colour trails test, digit span backward and Stroop C.; Within group: (d); medium effect size: colour trails, digit span backward, Stroop C, and reduction in risk of clinical progression to mild cognitive impairment	Cognitive measures: baseline and after intervention (3 months).; Neuroplasticity assessment: immediately before and after intervention	Not reported
[29] Eggenberger et al.	Dance exergame	Information processing; Shifting attention; Inhibition; Working memory; General cognitive ability	Between groups: fNIRS treadmill test: reduced at preferred walking speed in the left and right prefrontal cortex (PFC). At preferred and fast walking speed, higher left PFC activity than right. levels higher at fast compared to preferred walking speed.; Cognitive measures: unclear.; Within group: unclear	Between groups: (r); medium effect sizes: fNIRS treadmill test.; Within groups: (r); unclear	Immediately before and after intervention (8 weeks)	Nil adverse outcomes
[30] Esmail et al.	Dance/movement training	Executive function; Nonexecutive function; Global cognition	Within group: N-back test, digit Stroop and dual-task tests	Within group: (ηp^2); large effect size: N-back test, digit Stroop test, and dual-task tests	Immediately before and after intervention (12 weeks)	Nil adverse outcomes
[31] Hars et al.	Music-based multitask exercise classes	General cognition; Executive functioning	Between groups: sensitivity to interference subtest of the frontal assessment battery.; Within group: Mini-Mental State Examination	Not reported	Immediately before and after intervention (6 months)	Not reported
[32] Kitazawa et al.	Net step exercise	Visuospatial function.; Level of cognitive decline	Between groups: Touch-M, accuracy of the order of a process and naming fingers subtests of the touch-panel type dementia assessment scale.; Within group: Touch-M total score and naming fingers subtest of the touch-panel type dementia assessment scale	Not reported	Immediately before and after intervention (2 months)	Not reported
[33] Li et al.	Tai Chi Quan exercise	Global cognition	Between 2 intervention groups and stretching control group: Montreal cognitive assessment	Within group: improvement on Montreal cognitive assessment scores; it is unclear if statistical significance was reached	Not reported	Immediately before and after intervention (6 months)
[34] Monteiro-Junior et al.	Exergame Wii group	Semantic memory; Short-term memory; Working memory	Within group: verbal fluency test	Within group: (Δ before and after); large effect size: verbal fluency and digit span forward tests.; Small effect size: digit span backward test.; Between groups (Δ%): large effect size: verbal fluency, digit span forward and backward tests	Immediately before and after intervention (after 1 session)	Not reported
[35] Mortimer et al.	Tai Chi group	Not reported	Between 2 intervention groups and control group: increased whole brain volume.; Within group: category verbal fluency test, auditory verbal learning test (delayed recognition),; rail making test part A and B, Mattis dementia rating scale total score and attention, initiation and memory subtests of the Mattis dementia rating scale	Not reported	Before intervention and at follow-up (40 weeks).; 19-20 weeks between conclusion of intervention and follow-up assessment	Not reported
[36] Noice and Noice	Theatre group	Word recall; Category fluency; Episodic memory; Problem solving	Experiment 1; Between group: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and; Word list recall tests.; Within group: means-end problem solving procedure.; Experiment 2; Between group: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency and word list recall tests.; Within group: means-end problem solving procedure, verbal fluency, and word list recall (immediate) tests	Experiment 1; Between groups (ηp^2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and word list recall tests.; Within group (ηp^2): medium effect size: means-end problem solving procedure; small effect size: verbal fluency.; Experiment 2; Between group (ηp^2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and word list recall tests.; Within group (ηp^2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, verbal fluency, and word list recall (immediate) tests	Immediately before and after intervention (4 weeks)	Not reported
[37] Norouzi et al.	Motor-cognition dual-task group	Working memory	Between groups: N-back test.; Within group: N-back test	Large effect size: N-back test, after test and at follow-up.; Between groups: unclear ηp^2 or d; large effect size: N-back test, after test and at follow-up	Before intervention, after intervention, and at follow-up (4 weeks),; 8 weeks between conclusion of intervention and follow-up assessment	Not reported
[38] Schoene et al.	Exergame group	Combined stepping and executive function; Processing speed; Executive function; Attention; Inhibition; Visuospatial function	Between groups: letter digit test, hand reaction and choice stepping reaction times, mental rotation, and executive subtest of the attentional network test.; Within group: difference between low and high adherers: letter digit, alerting subtest of the attentional network test and trail making test B/A	Not reported	Before and after intervention (16 weeks)	One participant with post-polio; syndrome reporting severe leg pain.; No other adverse effects reported.
[39] Silsupadol et al.	Simultaneous balance and cognitive task group	Not reported	Between groups: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests whilst sitting.; Within group: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests whilst sitting	Within group: (ηp^2); large effect size: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests.; Between groups: (ηp^2); large effect size: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests	Before and after intervention (4 weeks)	Not reported
[40] Sungkarat et al.	Tai Chi group	Episodic memory; Visuospatial function; Executive function; Hand reaction time	Between group: logical memory-delayed recall subtest of the Wechsler memory scale, block design, trail making test B-A and hand reaction time.; Within group: not reported	Not reported	Before and after intervention (15 weeks)	No adverse effects
[41] Tsang et al.	Qigong exercise group	Global cognition	Between groups: acute and mid intervention effects; thinking operations subtest of the LOTCA-G.; Within group: not reported	Between groups: (ηp^2); small effect size: acute affects; orientation, visuomotor organisation, thinking operations, memory and attention subtests of the LOTCA-G	Acute effects: baseline to after intervention (12 weeks).; Mid-intervention effects: baseline to mid intervention (6 weeks).; Maintenance effects: post- to follow-up assessment (20 weeks)	No adverse events

The within group data relates to the SDT group only.