Executive function Visuospatial function Attention Verbal fluency Verbal memory Neuroplasticity
Between groups: colour trails, digit span backward, neuroplasticity assessment and Stroop C. Within group: colour trails, digit span backward, neuroplasticity assessment and Stroop C
Between groups: (ηp2) large effect size: colour trails test, digit span backward and Stroop C. Within group: (d) medium effect size: colour trails, digit span backward, Stroop C, and reduction in risk of clinical progression to mild cognitive impairment
Cognitive measures: baseline and after intervention (3 months). Neuroplasticity assessment: immediately before and after intervention
Information processing Shifting attention Inhibition Working memory General cognitive ability
Between groups: fNIRS treadmill test: reduced at preferred walking speed in the left and right prefrontal cortex (PFC). At preferred and fast walking speed, higher left PFC activity than right. levels higher at fast compared to preferred walking speed. Cognitive measures: unclear. Within group: unclear
Between groups: (r) medium effect sizes: fNIRS treadmill test. Within groups: (r) unclear
Immediately before and after intervention (8 weeks)
Between groups: Touch-M, accuracy of the order of a process and naming fingers subtests of the touch-panel type dementia assessment scale. Within group: Touch-M total score and naming fingers subtest of the touch-panel type dementia assessment scale
Not reported
Immediately before and after intervention (2 months)
Within group: (Δ before and after) large effect size: verbal fluency and digit span forward tests. Small effect size: digit span backward test. Between groups (Δ%): large effect size: verbal fluency, digit span forward and backward tests
Immediately before and after intervention (after 1 session)
Between 2 intervention groups and control group: increased whole brain volume. Within group: category verbal fluency test, auditory verbal learning test (delayed recognition), rail making test part A and B, Mattis dementia rating scale total score and attention, initiation and memory subtests of the Mattis dementia rating scale
Not reported
Before intervention and at follow-up (40 weeks). 19-20 weeks between conclusion of intervention and follow-up assessment
Word recall Category fluency Episodic memory Problem solving
Experiment 1 Between group: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and Word list recall tests. Within group: means-end problem solving procedure. Experiment 2 Between group: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency and word list recall tests. Within group: means-end problem solving procedure, verbal fluency, and word list recall (immediate) tests
Experiment 1 Between groups (ηp2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and word list recall tests. Within group (ηp2): medium effect size: means-end problem solving procedure; small effect size: verbal fluency. Experiment 2 Between group (ηp2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, east Boston memory, verbal fluency, and word list recall tests. Within group (ηp2): large effect size: means-end problem solving procedure, verbal fluency, and word list recall (immediate) tests
Immediately before and after intervention (4 weeks)
Between groups: N-back test. Within group: N-back test
Large effect size: N-back test, after test and at follow-up. Between groups: unclear ηp2 or d; large effect size: N-back test, after test and at follow-up
Before intervention, after intervention, and at follow-up (4 weeks), 8 weeks between conclusion of intervention and follow-up assessment
Combined stepping and executive function Processing speed Executive function Attention Inhibition Visuospatial function
Between groups: letter digit test, hand reaction and choice stepping reaction times, mental rotation, and executive subtest of the attentional network test. Within group: difference between low and high adherers: letter digit, alerting subtest of the attentional network test and trail making test B/A
Not reported
Before and after intervention (16 weeks)
One participant with post-polio syndrome reporting severe leg pain. No other adverse effects reported.
Between groups: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests whilst sitting. Within group: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests whilst sitting
Within group: (ηp2) large effect size: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests. Between groups: (ηp2) large effect size: counting backwards by threes and auditory Stroop tests
Episodic memory Visuospatial function Executive function Hand reaction time
Between group: logical memory-delayed recall subtest of the Wechsler memory scale, block design, trail making test B-A and hand reaction time. Within group: not reported
Between groups: acute and mid intervention effects; thinking operations subtest of the LOTCA-G. Within group: not reported
Between groups: (ηp2) small effect size: acute affects; orientation, visuomotor organisation, thinking operations, memory and attention subtests of the LOTCA-G
Acute effects: baseline to after intervention (12 weeks). Mid-intervention effects: baseline to mid intervention (6 weeks). Maintenance effects: post- to follow-up assessment (20 weeks)
No adverse events
The within group data relates to the SDT group only.