Redox Homeostasis and Cellular Antioxidant Systems: Crucial Players in Cancer Growth and Therapy

Figure 2

Redox-signaling pathways that are involved in cancer growth and progression. Cancer cells escape cell death and damage induced by high ROS levels by increasing their antioxidant defenses such as GSH that contribute to lower the amount of ROS. ROS are produced by NOX in the plasma membrane and by mitochondria, and at low levels they act as second messengers by activating many protein kinases (PI3/Akt, p38 MAPK, and ATM) and transcription factors (Nrf2, NF-κB, p53, and HIF-1) able to contribute to cancer cell survival by stimulating cell proliferation, inflammation, and angiogenesis. GR, glutathione reductase.