It Works Both Ways: Transfer Difficulties between Manipulatives and Written Subtraction Solutions

Table 2

Experiment  2 design.

	𝑛	Pretest	Practice test 1	Practice test 2	Posttest
Control	10	Written	None	None	Manipulatives
Written; instruction	10	Written	Written	Written	Manipulatives
Manipulatives; instruction	10	Written	Manipulatives	Manipulatives	Manipulatives

Note: In Experiment  1, children who received no instruction did not improve their performance after completing two practice tests. Consequently, in Experiment  2 children who received no instruction were given only the pretest.