Gender-Based Violence: Implications for Girl-Child Education in Some Selected Displaced Persons Camps in Maiduguri

Bawa, Adam Gana; Kaur, Supreet

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8446724

Education Research International

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Abstract Introduction Materials Results and Discussion Discussion Conclusion Data Availability Disclosure Conflicts of Interest References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2023 | Article ID 8446724 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8446724

Gender-Based Violence: Implications for Girl-Child Education in Some Selected Displaced Persons Camps in Maiduguri

Adam Gana Bawa¹and Supreet Kaur¹

Academic Editor: S. Maheswaran

Received09 Feb 2023

Revised13 May 2023

Accepted05 Sept 2023

Published28 Oct 2023

Abstract

Factors other than economic development account for disparities between rich and poor countries’ levels of educational achievement. Gender-based violence includes brittleness and hostility that have widened the achievement gap between boys and girls. The intersectionality of violence against women and girls made it to be a multifaceted and multidimensional phenomenon that affects almost every aspect of individual life, including personal and intellectual development which education as society’s basic social institution served. Though, there is no gain in saying that gender violence has no implications on education at all levels. This paper examines gender-related violence and its implications on girl-child education in some selected displaced person camps in Maiduguri. A total of 403 respondents were conveniently selected across displaced persons camps in Maiduguri. However, interviews and questionnaires were used as instruments for data collection and both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for data analysis. It was revealed that the majority of respondents thought that the magnitude of gender-related violence in displaced person camps in Maiduguri was very immense with detrimental consequences on displaced person’s well-being and the school being among the danger zone for gender violence. The result of the correlation analysis revealed that there is a moderate positive relationship between forceful reiteration, blackmail, degrading, and blame games from/by parents/guardians and gender-based violence indicating that an increase in these factors is found to be associated with gender-based violence. This paper suggested community education on the negative gender stereotypes through community workshops, educational and empowerment programs, and localized campaigns to dismantle harmful gender stereotypes that exacerbate violence against women.

1. Introduction

Gender-based violence (GBV) or gender-related violence today is the worse form of gender inequality that is often associated with factors such as gender discrimination, racism, conflict, poverty, or the socioeconomic status of individuals. GBV is a prevalent human rights violation around the world, which has major detrimental physical, sexual, and psychological consequences. Gender violence is an act of violence or abuse inflicted on a person or group based on their sex, gender, and or sexual orientation. Violent acts such as brittleness, hostility, and sexual assault have widened the achievement gap between boys and girls. Girls typically have worse learning capacity than boys by 4% [1]. The implications of gender violence on the enhancement of girl-child education cannot be overemphasized. Globally, for instance, three important legal measures have been adopted by European nations to reduce gender-related violence. To align with a development expert’s attempt to consider equal opportunity for all regardless of sex or gender, led the campaign for the eradication of gender discrimination and abuse. The agitation for women’s equal participation in economic decision making has driven the sustainable development goals (SDGs) agenda, which aimed to promote gender equality [2].

Although, the international law didn’t substantiate what constitutes the human rights of the normal individual from refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). However, the law defined IDP as a person or group of persons who have been forced to flee their home or place of habitual residence in particular as a result of or to avoid armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violation of human rights, or natural or man-made disasters and they must have either remained within their national borders [3]. Gender violence and other deep-seated factors underlying this phenomenon of mass displacement. Conflict, underdevelopment, poverty, unequal power, and wealth distribution are factors associated with gender violence. Gender violence occurs in many parts of the world; in the case of Maiduguri, IDPs camps present a major challenge to women and young girls especially in the area of girl-child education. Data in some war-torn countries indicate one in four women and girls may encounter gender violence during an armed conflict, depending on the circumstances [4]. Also, studies revealed that one in three young girls in the world experience sexual abuse [5]. Based on this background, the present study examines gender-based violence and its implications on girl-child education in some selected displaced persons camps. Displaced women and young girls in the study are exposed to a series of gender-related violence due to limited livelihood opportunities, deteriorating economic conditions, and aggressive behavior of officials. Perhaps, gender violence such as denial of basic resources may have negative implications on displaced girls’ school attainments.

1.1. Gender Violence and Vulnerable Persons

Internally displaced girls of the school-aged are the most vulnerable and worst group affected by gender violence because leaving in displaced persons camps in itself is associated with several social and economic consequences, which include denial of access to basic resources (economic violence) [6]. However, because of the psychological/emotional trauma associated with GBV, several studies revealed that gender-related violence is the leading cause of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [7]. Gender violence affects the rights and dignity of individuals as citizens. Apart from the above consequences, gender violence can result in drug abuse, unemployment, and homeless among victims who have been sexually abused or raped. Substantially, the long-lasting physical ramification of GBV includes severe physical and mental health damages [7]. For example, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) [8], suicides, and homicides [9] among others.

A study on gender related in war-torn states in 2009 found out that among the vulnerable population in restoration camps, children were the most vulnerable compared to men and women [10]. Though, women have been earmarked as the most vulnerable by several studies especially in the Middle East [11–13]. A similar study in South Sudan 2017 revealed that women are the most vulnerable in terms of sexual harassment, stereotyping, and stigmatization. This is most common among girls between the ages of 11 and 35 years [14]. It is plausible to conclude that irrespective of reoccurrence of gender violence in IDPs camps, the bulk of the effect falls on children and women. Perhaps, GBV had implications for the education of the displaced girls. Studies show that girls are 2.5 times more likely to dropout of school than boys, especially in areas affected by armed conflict and displacement [1].

2. Materials and Method

2.1. Research Design

The research design used in this study was a descriptive survey in which questionnaire and interviews were employed. Descriptive analysis (which is ideal for such a study [15]) was utilized to understand the implications of gender-related violence on girl-child education [16].

2.2. Data Required

The data required for this study include demographic data and data on gender violence: (1) the demographic data are respondent’s information, which includes names of IDPs camps, ethnic group, religion, age, and educational qualification/attainments of the respondents and (2) the second category included: information from both the camp officials and the displaced persons on the characteristics, gravity, and possible panacea for gender-related violence.

2.3. Population and Sampling

Thus, as a result of the constant fluctuation in the displaced person’s camps due to the conflict, a static population cannot be realized. The insurgency in Maiduguri continues to ravage villages in the local government areas, which results to massive exodus into displaced persons camps. The government, on the other hand, has continued to sensitize displaced persons on income-based activities after which they were released into host communities in Maiduguri. This situation has led to an unstable population in the displaced person camps. For this study, therefore, this situation has influenced the nature of the sampling and the nature of data collection. Thus, the convenience sampling technique was utilized. The study used the entire displaced person population in the selected displaced person’s camps and camps officials in Maiduguri as the population of the study, out of which, a total of 403 respondents were selected. However, convenience sampling procedure was utilized in the selection of five major displaced persons camps, which include: Bakasi, Dalori, Mohammed Goni, Muna, and Teachers’ Village displaced persons camps all in Maiduguri.

Table 1 shows the distribution of sample size and sample selected in each of the five selected IDPs camps. The sample is selected according to the size of the camp population with Muna camp having the highest 112 for both displaced persons and officials. Bakasi camp has the lowest with 59 displaced persons and officials, and Dalori, Mohammed Goni, and Teacher’s Village have 79, 75, and 78 displaced persons, respectively. The total sample size, therefore, realized 403 displaced persons.

2.4. Date Frame

The places that were engaged for data collection were displaced person camps, the Borno State Emergency Management Agency (BOSEMA), United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), Police Headquarters, and the Borno State Human Rights Office. All these places were visited and data were collected from each of the places, respectively, for this study. However, at the IDPs camps, data were collected from both the camp officials and the IDPs using semistructured and structured interviews and questionnaire, respectively.

2.5. Procedure for Data Collection

Community leaders known as “Bulama” were engaged in the process of data collection from the displaced persons in the camps with the aid of field assistants. A total of 10 field assistants were recruited for the exercise.

2.6. Method of Data Analysis

For this study, both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed. Descriptive method statistics such as simple frequency and percentage were used. On the other hand, Pearson’s product–moment correlation was used to ascertain how the independent and dependent variables are related. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26.0 was utilized for the collation and analysis of the data. Sharma [15] postulated that the correlation type was run because the data were on an ordinal scale with a skewed distribution.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Results

The display, analysis, and discussion of data are all topics covered in the section. Based on the study topics, the data obtained through interviews and a self-administered questionnaire were analyzed.

As shown in Table 2, results showed that all camp officials agreed that homes, water points, and schools were among the danger zones. This is because women and girls were more likely to experience increased gender violence in these areas. The result also showed that 94% of camp officials agreed that women and girls were not safe when they left the IDPs camp. Similarly, 97% also agreed that visiting another area and going to school and town or crossing border may expose women and girls to risk of GBV. Additionally, 67% of camp officials agreed that the magnitude of gender violence among IDPs in Maiduguri camps was very high. Furthermore, 97% of camp officials also agreed that rape, survival sex, physical violence, and denial of basic resources were the types of violence incidents against women and girls in various IDPs camps.

The study showed that women and girls are more exposed to sexual violence in public areas within camps and out of reach of officials. On the contrary, proper orientation is issued to camp inhabitants to provide colossal optimism for moral decorum when they leave camps. Finally, married women are at higher risk of sexual violence than spinsters.

The replies of the gender violence victims in the five IDPs camps under study are shown in Table 3. Results showed that 98% of respondents agreed that the problems/challenges they faced in the camp included being denied access to basic resources, being harassed, and attacked by people of the opposite sex when they moved around. Eighty-five percent of gender violence victims agreed that their guardians publicly humiliated them and tried to destroy their possessions or other valuable objects. Ninety percent of respondents reported that their guardians or partners frequently acted irrationally toward them or had unpredictable mood swings, making it difficult for them to forecast when a problem may arise. Eighty-nine percent of people surveyed agree that their partner or parents frequently hurt or threaten to hurt them and other family members, including children, pets, and themselves. They also accuse them of being the cause of their violent outbursts. Eighty-five percent of those polled concur that their partners or guardians physically abuse them by punching, beating, pushing, or shoving them. Only a percent of respondents reported having been struck, slapped, kicked, or bit while experiencing sexual assault, such as rape or other forced sexual activity.

Most respondents (86%) agreed that their guardians or partners had threatened to report them to the police for engaging in illegal activity if they reported abuse or if they resisted; ninety-nine percent of the victims had experienced gender violence and agreed that the current gender violence prevention and response strategies among the displaced persons in Maiduguri were sufficient in managing gender violence incidence; finally, the vast majority of gender violence victims agreed that poverty and lax social norms were the main causes of gender violence. This indicates that there is a massive denial of rights for women and girls in the camps, especially being engaged in menial jobs to make some earnings.

3.1.1. Hypothesis 1

Table 4 shows that the correlation analysis at revealed that there is a moderate positive relationship between forceful reiteration of sexual abuse, sexual blackmail from a partner/guardian, and GBV (economic violence) with correlation coefficients of r = 0.380 and r = 0.281, respectively, indicating that there is a correlation between forceful reiteration of sexual abuse, sexual blackmail from partners/guardians, and GBV among IDPs. From the correlation result, the null hypothesis is hereby accepted.

3.1.2. Hypothesis 2

Table 5 shows that the correlation analysis at and revealed that there is a moderate positive relationship between degrading by partner/guardian, blame game, and GBV with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.164 and r = 0.154, respectively, indicating that there is a correlation between degrading, blame game from parents/guardians, and GBV (economic violence) among IDPs. From the correlation result, the null hypothesis is hereby accepted.

4. Discussion

Due to the disruption of the family network caused by the violent conflict in Maiduguri, Northeast Nigeria, women and girls among displaced persons are more at risk of gender violence [17]. Gender violence among women and girls more especially IDPs remains prevalent across all nations, sections, and various social classes everywhere in the world. Though, it reveals differently and in fluctuating heights of force conferring to the sociocultural and outlining institutionalized factors, report shows [18]. Equally, the 2008 United Nations (UN) women’s country report on Nigeria’s violence against women, girls, and children provided concrete evidence of the prevalence of gender-related violence in Nigeria’s six geographical areas [19]. Similar to this, a 2014 UN women’s study on women’s involvement in three northern Nigerian conflict-affected states’ peace and security revealed that violence against women and girls was on the rise, primarily as a result of the crisis in the regions [20]. This claim is supported by the widespread media coverage of the devastating effects of gender violence on women and girls of all ages and socioeconomic backgrounds, which has resultant implications on education.

However, the result of the study revealed that almost all the women in the camp are working and girls are mostly in school or working place. Although, the majority (97%) of the camp officials concurred that when women and girls moved about the camp, they encountered difficulties. This data concurred with study, which asserted that most women suffer violence while moving around, at work, in the market, or the public domain [21]. The fear of rape or assault is linked to some women who have lived in IDPs camps. Due to the male subjugation in society and weak societal norms, economically successful women may also discover that they are subjected to increased violence from their partners, relatives, or other community members since societal standards have many facets; women’s empowerment and gender violence are likewise complicated issues, including education of the girl child. In gender-related violence, which are human rights, breaches occur in internal displacement, especially in Maiduguri.

Similarly, the vast majority (97%) of camp authorities concurred those residences, water sources, and schools are among the risky areas in the IDPs camps where women and girls are most likely to see a rise in gender violence. The majority of camp staff members also agreed that women are more vulnerable than girls and that there are various risk factors for women. Thus, the study found that gender violence against women and girls in various displaced persons camps included rape, survival sex, physical abuse, and denial of basic necessities. Therefore, the magnitude of gender violence among displaced persons in Maiduguri was very high. Globally, women and girls especially those in displaced situations suffer from crimes and violence. In India between 2015 and 2016, there was a 2.9% increase in the rate of crimes against women and young girls [22]. In 2016, most of the crimes committed against women were committed by their husbands or their relations. Assault, kidnapping, abduction, and rape were faced by women. In the United States (US), three to four million women are brutally battered every year [23]. Family-related domestic crime has taken up a major amount of the Hindi television news cycle [24]. Men’s aggression against women often is more intolerable and has major repercussions [25]. Similarly, in Tanzania, crime against women has a sociopolitical component [26]. Social norms that support men’s dominance and women’s subordination are what drive the prevalence of crime against women in South Africa, Asia, and the US [27].

Additionally, in the current study, all the camp staff members agreed that programs aimed at empowering and educating women reduced the spread of gender violence and believed that communities, women’s organizations, and social service organizations were crucial in the battle against gender violence. The results also showed that most camp officials (100%) thought the present gender violence prevention and response techniques relating to IDPs in Maiduguri were very successful and that most camp officials (83%) thought the causes and problems of gender-related violence among displaced persons in Maiduguri were very great. A meaningful gender violence prevention and response program, including the establishment of a working group and safe space, the distribution of dignity kits, the provision of psychological support, and various gender violence training, were implemented in the IDPs camps in Maiduguri [28]. Only nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) had a thorough gender violence prevention and response program, but it only reached seven host villages and three IDPs camps and included sensitization, referrals for medical care, and psychosocial counseling. In this way, women and girls and children received some psychological counseling, but it was not expressly gender violence-related [29]. Only 5% of the estimated 1.5 million persons who needed gender violence programming were reached in IDPs camps in 2016. The Prevention Sector Working Group (PSWG) reports that the majority of the 5% got psychosocial support and community sensitization. As a result, none of the gender violence survivors received specialized treatment or integrated services [30].

More so, it is confirmed that gender violence in crises requires corporation and prominence exclusively on multisectoral response to include primary deterrence activities [31–34]. GBV is the term used to describe acts that cause women and girls to suffer physically, sexually, or psychologically. These actions may involve force or the willful denial of rights, whether they may take place in a private or public setting [21]. The study’s findings show that all camp administrators agreed that active gender violence theme groups or working groups are necessary for the camps. The UN suggested that women need to take action to reduce the prevalence of sexual violence since gender inequality directly reproduces and strengthens this act of violence against women and girls, which targets them. Additionally, the gender violence program needs to be coordinated and has adequate accountability mechanisms in place in IDPs camps.

This study has focused on gender-related violence in a warring situation. It doesn’t conclude that gender violence doesn’t occur outside such a situation. It is indeed of great importance to replicate such study in a nonwarring situation such as in homes, workplace among others, to examine and understand its nature under such situation. Also, a study can also be carried out for IDPs in host communities. There is a great tendency that difference and even similarities can be experienced.

5. Conclusion

This research examines GBV in the context of displacement and its effects on girl-child education in Maiduguri. Individuals displaced due to conflict between the Nigerian government and the radical religious organization since 2009 resulted in the camping of IDPs in camps. Women and girls are at an increased risk of gender violence due to deprivation and low quality of life. The overcrowding in the displaced persons camps’ residences also worsens the risk of interpersonal violence (IPV) and other forms of domestic violence. The displacement, which added financial burden to the displaced persons and the community, has also exposed them to exploitation and abuse within the camp setting; women and girls run a significant danger of survival sex in return for mobility; security including hygiene security and resource availability. In addition, the study found that girls had unique risk factors from women, including a higher likelihood of child marriage and child labor as a means of easing financial difficulties. As a result, the risk of gender violence for girls continues to be extremely high with serious implications for their educational attainments. The study revealed that IDPs women and girls faced challenges ranging from denial of basic resources. With these challenges, women contract their children for forced marriage, making them exposed to other forms of gender violence such as sexual exploitation and abuse. Girls of school age are denied the right to education as a fundamental human right result of this single act. The women and girls residing in displaced persons camps were shown to be more prone to rape and other forms of gender violence. Therefore, there is a need for strengthening the GBV programs in Maiduguri as gender violence results in low enrollment turnover for girls. Further studies are recommended to better understand gender violence in a variety of contexts. In light of these findings, it is suggested that a study on GBV, particularly sexual violence, and men’s behavior can be conducted in a wider range of nations, with a focus on low- and middle-income nations like Nigeria and other African nations. Hence, to meet their requirements for dealing with gender violence in IDPs camps, including its effect on girl-child education: sensitize the communities about harmful gender stereotypes that worsen gender violence through community workshops, educational and empowerment initiatives, and localized campaigns. Create community awareness of the effects of GBV, especially on girl-child education. Government and NGOs should sensitize the younger generation on the negative attitudes to women and girls through community-based programs, educational opportunities, and community engagement since educated men are less likely to think that assaulting a wife is acceptable. Government and concerned authorities should also put in place a strong legal system with an effective court system to function as mediators in conflicts; this shall reduce gender violence victims and conflict frequency while improving the protection of women and girls in the IDPs camps to ensure SDGs education for all.

Data Availability

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.

Disclosure

This research was performed as part of the PhD graduation requirement of the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

No conflicts of interest exist in publishing this article; hence, submitting author is responsible for co-author declaring her interest.

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Copyright

Copyright © 2023 Adam Gana Bawa and Supreet Kaur. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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