Z. Elizabeth Floyd

Jeffrey M. Gimble

PPARs, RXRs, and Stem Cells

Protein farnesylation is required for the activation of multiple proteins involved in cell differentiation and function. In white adipose tissue protein, farnesylation has shown to be essential for the successful differentiation of preadipocytes into adipocytes. We hypothesize that protein farnesylation is required for PPAR<mml:math id="E2" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 expression and activation, and therefore for the differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into adipocytes. MSCs were plated and induced to differentiate into adipocytes for three weeks. Differentiating cells were treated with either an inhibitor of farnesylation (FTI-277) or vehicle
alone. The effect of inhibition of farnesylation in differentiating adipocytes was determined by oil red O staining. Cell survival was quantified using MTS Formazan. Additionally, nuclear extracts were obtained and prelamin A, chaperon protein HDJ-2, PPAR<mml:math id="E3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>, and SREBP-1 were determined by western blot. Finally, DNA binding PPAR<mml:math id="E4" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math> activity was determined using an ELISA-based PPAR<mml:math id="E5" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math> activation quantification method. Treatment with an inhibitor of farnesylation (FTI-277) arrests
adipogenesis without affecting cell survival. This effect was concomitant with lower levels of PPAR<mml:math id="E6" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math> expression and activity. Finally, accumulation of prelamin A induced an increased proportion of mature SREBP-1 which is known to affect PPAR<mml:math id="E7" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math> activity. In summary, inhibition of protein farnesylation arrests the adipogenic differentiation of MSCs and affects PPAR<mml:math id="E8" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math> expression and activity.

Daniel Rivas

Rahima Akter

Gustavo Duque

Inhibition of Protein Farnesylation Arrests Adipogenesis and Affects PPARγ Expression and Activation in
Differentiating Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-<mml:math id="E1" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>) belongs to the nuclear hormone receptor subfamily of transcription factors. PPARs are expressed in key target tissues such as liver, fat, and muscle and thus they play a major role in the regulation of energy balance. Because of PPAR-<mml:math id="E2" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>'s role in energy balance, signals originating from the gut (e.g., GIP), fat (e.g., leptin), muscle (e.g., myostatin), or bone (e.g., GILZ) can in turn modulate PPAR expression and/or function. Of the two PPAR-<mml:math id="E3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math> isoforms, PPAR-<mml:math id="E4" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 is the key regulator of adipogenesis and also plays a role in bone development. Activation of this receptor favors adipocyte differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells, while inhibition of PPAR-<mml:math id="E5" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 expression shifts the commitment towards the osteoblastogenic pathway. Clinically, activation of this receptor by antidiabetic agents of the thiazolidinedione class results in lower bone mass and increased fracture rates. We propose that inhibition of PPAR-<mml:math id="E6" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 expression in mesenchymal stem cells by use of some of the hormones/factors mentioned above may be a useful therapeutic strategy to favor bone formation.

Xingming Shi

Mark Hamrick

Carlos M. Isales

Energy Balance, Myostatin, and GILZ: Factors Regulating Adipocyte Differentiation in Belly and Bone

Embryonic stem (ES) cells have great therapeutic potential because they are capable of indefinite self-renewal and have the potential to differentiate into over 200 different cell types that compose the human body. The switch from the pluripotent phenotype to a differentiated cell involves many complex signaling pathways including those involving LIF/Stat3 and the transcription factors Sox2, Nanog and Oct-4. Many nuclear receptors play an important role in the maintenance of pluripotence (ERR<mml:math id="E1" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>β</mml:mi></mml:math>, SF-1, LRH-1, DAX-1) repression of the ES cell phenotype (RAR, RXR, GCNF) and also the differentiation of ES cells (PPAR<mml:math id="E2" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>). Here we review the roles of the nuclear receptors involved in regulating these important processes in ES cells.

Eimear M. Mullen

Peili Gu

Austin J. Cooney

Nuclear Receptors in Regulation of Mouse ES Cell Pluripotency and Differentiation

Bone formation and hematopoiesis are anatomically juxtaposed and share common regulatory mechanisms. Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSC) contain a compartment that provides progeny with bone forming osteoblasts and fat laden adipocytes as well as fibroblasts, chondrocytes, and muscle cells. In addition, marrow MSC provide an environment for support of hematopoiesis, including the development of bone resorbing osteoclasts. The PPAR<mml:math id="E2" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 nuclear receptor is an adipocyte-specific transcription factor that controls marrow MSC lineage allocation toward adipocytes and osteoblasts. Increased expression of PPAR<mml:math id="E3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 with aging correlates with changes in the MSC status in respect to both their intrinsic differentiation potential and production of signaling molecules that contribute to the formation of a specific marrow microenvironment. Here, we investigated the effect of PPAR<mml:math id="E4" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 on MSC molecular signature in respect to the expression of gene markers associated exclusively with stem cell phenotype, as well as genes involved in the formation of a stem cell 
 supporting marrow environment. We found that PPAR<mml:math id="E5" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 is a powerful modulator of stem cell-related gene expression. In general, PPAR<mml:math id="E6" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 affects the expression of genes specific for the maintenance of stem cell phenotype, including LIF, LIF receptor, Kit ligand, SDF-1, Rex-1/Zfp42, and Oct-4. Moreover, the antidiabetic PPAR<mml:math id="E7" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math> agonist TZD rosiglitazone specifically affects the expression of “stemness” genes, including ABCG2, Egfr, and CD44. Our data indicate that aging and antidiabetic TZD therapy may affect mesenchymal stem cell phenotype through modulation of PPAR<mml:math id="E8" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 activity. These observations may have important therapeutic consequences and indicate a need for more detailed studies of PPAR<mml:math id="E9" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mi>γ</mml:mi></mml:math>2 role in stem cell biology.

K. R. Shockley

C. J. Rosen

G. A. Churchill

B. Lecka-Czernik

PPAR<svg style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 8.6374998 12.175" width="8.6374998" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><path id="x1D6FE" d="M478 372q0 -39 -31 -97t-61 -98t-78 -98q-45 -55 -73 -102q-13 -79 -13 -197q-11 -11 -43.5 -25.5t-53.5 -15.5l-15 17q5 35 26 101.5t47 123.5q8 72 -1.5 174.5t-37.5 178.5q-14 37 -29 37q-20 0 -67 -65l-25 21q37 60 73 90.5t63 30.5q47 0 72 -112q13 -56 17.5 -141.5
t0.5 -143.5h2q155 193 155 297q0 26 -12 47q-5 8 -5 15q0 16 12.5 27t29.5 11q21 0 34 -21t13 -55z"/></g></svg> 2 Regulates a Molecular Signature of Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Multipotent hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) sustain blood cell production throughout an individual's lifespan through complex processes ultimately leading to fates of self-renewal, differentiation or cell death decisions. A fine balance between these decisions in vivo allows for the size of the HSC pool to be maintained. While many key factors involved in regulating HSC/progenitor cell differentiation and cell death are known, the critical regulators of HSC self-renewal are largely unknown. In recent years, however, a number of studies describing methods of increasing or decreasing the numbers of HSCs in a given population have emerged. Of major interest here are the emerging roles of retinoids in the regulation of HSCs.

Louise E. Purton

Roles of Retinoids and Retinoic Acid Receptors in the Regulation of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Self-Renewal and Differentiation

Due to the importance of fat tissues in both energy balance and in the associated disorders arising when such balance is not maintained, adipocyte differentiation has been extensively investigated in order to control and inhibit the enlargement of white adipose tissue. The ability of a cell to undergo adipocyte differentiation is one particular feature of all mesenchymal cells. Up until now, the peroxysome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) subtypes appear to be the keys and essential players capable of inducing and controlling adipocyte differentiation. In addition, it is now accepted that adipose cells present a broad plasticity that allows them to differentiate towards various mesodermal phenotypes. The role of PPARs in such plasticity is reviewed here, although no definite conclusion can yet be drawn. Many questions thus remain open concerning the definition of preadipocytes and the relative importance of PPARs in comparison to other master factors involved in the other mesodermal phenotypes.

Louis  Casteilla

B&#233;atrice  Cousin

Mamen  Carmona

PPARs and Adipose Cell Plasticity

PPAR isotypes are involved in the regulation of cell proliferation, death, and differentiation, with different roles and mechanisms depending on the specific isotype and ligand and on the differentiated, undifferentiated, or transformed status of the cell. Differentiation stimuli are integrated by key transcription factors which regulate specific sets of specialized genes to allow proliferative cells to exit the cell cycle and acquire specialized functions. The main differentiation programs known to be controlled by PPARs 
both during development and in the adult are placental differentiation, adipogenesis, osteoblast differentiation, skin differentiation, and gut differentiation. PPARs may also be involved in the differentiation of macrophages, brain, and breast. However, their functions in this cell type and organs still awaits further elucidation. PPARs may be involved in cell proliferation and differentiation processes of neural stem cells (NSC). To this aim, in this work the expression of the three PPAR isotypes and RXRs in NSC has been investigated.

A. Cimini

L. Cristiano

E. Benedetti

B. D'Angelo

M. P. Cerù

[Retracted] PPARs Expression in Adult Mouse Neural Stem Cells: Modulation of PPARs during Astroglial Differentiaton of NSC

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PPAR Research publishes articles related to mechanisms involved in the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, as well as their role in regulation of cellular differentiation, development, energy homeostasis and metabolic function.

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Chief Editor, Dr Xiao-Jie Lu, is dedicated to basic and translational research on liver diseases. His research at Nanjing Medical University, China, focuses&nbsp;on exploring these diseases' underlying mechanisms that may be translatable to novel diagnostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets.

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PPAR Research publishes articles related to mechanisms involved in the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, as well as their role in regulation of cellular differentiation, development, energy homeostasis and metabolic function.

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PPAR Research

PPARs, RXRs, and Stem Cells

PPARs, RXRs, and Stem Cells

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