Current Views on Genetics and Epigenetics of Cholesterol Gallstone Disease

Table 1

Major risk factors for cholesterol gallstones.

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Independent

 (i) Increasing age

 (ii) Female gender

 (iii) Race

 (iv) Family history

Dietary

 (i) High calorie

 (ii) High cholesterol

 (iii) High fat

 (iv) High trans-fatty acids

 (v) Low fiber

 (vi) Low cis-unsaturated fats

 (vii) High refined carbohydrates

Life style

 (i) Low grade physical activity

 (ii) Prolonged fasting

 (iii) Rapid weight loss

 (iv) Pregnancy and parity

 (v) Oral contraceptives

 (vi) Estrogen replacement therapy

Associated conditions

 (i) The metabolic syndrome

 (ii) Obesity

 (iii) Insulin resistance

 (iv) Diabetes type 2

 (v) Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

 (vi) Gallbladder and/or intestinal stasis

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Adapted and modified from Portincasa et al. The Lancet, 2006 [17].