Gender Socialization: Differences between Male and Female Youth in India and Associations with Mental Health
Table 3
Poisson regression model for gender socialization and mental health problems among females and males (“Youth in India: Situation and Needs Study,” 2006–08 ()).
Indicators
Females ()
Males ()
(se)
(se)
Age
0.02
(0.01)**
1.02
0.03
(0.01)***
1.03
Residence (ref. = rural)
Urban
−0.22
(0.03)***
0.81
−0.20
(0.04)***
0.82
Region (ref. = south)
West
0.50
(0.04)***
1.65
0.37
(0.05)***
1.45
North
0.33
(0.04)***
1.39
0.26
(0.05)***
1.30
Religion (ref. = Hindu)
Muslim
−0.01
(0.04)
0.99
0.05
(0.06)
1.05
Other
−0.01
(0.05)
0.99
0.07
(0.07)
1.07
Caste (ref. = general caste)
Scheduled castes
0.09
(0.04)
1.09
0.05
(0.06)
1.05
Scheduled tribe
0.08
(0.05)
1.08
0.18
(0.06)**
1.19
Other backward castes
−0.01
(0.03)
0.99
0.08
(0.05)
1.08
Not known
0.06
(0.13)
1.06
0.25
(0.21)
1.28
Marital status (ref. = single/never married)
Married, living with spouse
−0.03
(0.04)
0.97
−0.19
(0.06)**
0.83
Married, not living with spouse
−0.02
(0.07)
0.98
0.23
(0.16)
1.26
Married, no gauna
0.00
(0.09)
1.00
−0.38
(0.15)**
0.68
Work status (ref. = paid only)
Unpaid only
0.00
(0.05)
1.00
−0.08
(0.07)
0.92
Both paid and unpaid
−0.11
(0.06)
0.90
0.19
(0.07)**
1.20
Neither paid nor unpaid
−0.05
(0.03)
0.95
0.03
(0.05)
1.04
Years of schooling (ref. = >12 years)
10–12 years
0.05
(0.03)
1.05
−0.10
(0.05)
0.90
5–9 years
−0.09
(0.05)
0.91
−0.15
(0.06)
0.86
<5 years
−0.12
(0.07)
0.89
−0.10
(0.08)
0.90
Family type (ref. = nuclear)
Nonnuclear
0.02
(0.03)
1.02
0.08
(0.03)
1.08
Wealth quintile (ref. = Q5, wealthiest)
Quartile 4
−0.08
(0.04)
0.92
0.12
(0.05)
1.13
Quartile 3
−0.08
(0.04)
0.92
0.16
(0.06)**
1.17
Quartile 2
−0.06
(0.05)
0.94
0.18
(0.06)**
1.19
Quartile 1 (poorest)
−0.11
(0.05)
0.90
0.26
(0.07)***
1.30
Families discriminated between sons and daughters in education, freedom to roam, and household work (ref. = no gender-discrimination in all 3 matters)
Gender-discrimination in 1 matter
0.30
(0.04)***
1.35
−0.12
(0.05)
0.89
Gender-discrimination in 2 matters
0.31
(0.04)***
1.36
−0.28
(0.05)***
0.76
Gender-discrimination in all 3 matters
0.42
(0.04)***
1.52
−0.24
(0.05)***
0.79
Youth did household chores inside home (ref. = never)
Performed housework
0.01
(0.11)
1.01
0.15
(0.04)***
1.16
Youth did household chores outside home (ref. = neither shopped nor did other outside chores)
Either shopped or did other outside chores
0.10
(0.03)**
1.11
−0.15
(0.09)
0.86
Both shopped and did other outside chores
0.14
(0.04)***
1.15
−0.31
(0.08)***
0.73
Ever witnessed violence between parents (ref. = no)
Yes
0.33
(0.03)***
1.39
0.25
(0.04)***
1.28
Not asked—either/both parents deceased
0.19
(0.04)***
1.20
0.07
(0.05)
1.07
Ever experienced parental violence after age 12 (ref. = no)
Yes
0.24
(0.03)***
1.27
0.12
(0.03)**
1.12
Do not remember
0.30
(0.11)**
1.35
−0.13
(0.26)
0.88
Able to make independent decision—choosing friends, spending money, buying clothes, and so on (ref. = yes, all 3)
Yes, 2 of 3 items
0.05
(0.04)
1.05
0.04
(0.04)
1.04
Yes, 1 of 3 items
0.13
(0.04)***
1.14
0.02
(0.05)
1.02
Unable to make independent decision on any item
0.37
(0.05)***
1.45
0.26
(0.10)
1.29
Able to often express/confront (ref. = express and confront)
Either express or confront
0.06
(0.04)
1.06
0.37
(0.05)***
1.44
Neither express nor confront
0.14
(0.03)***
1.15
0.22
(0.04)***
1.25
Unescorted mobility inside V/N (ref. = yes, all 3 places)
Yes, only to 2 places
−0.06
(0.04)
0.94
0.02
(0.06)
1.02
Yes, only to 1 place
0.29
(0.05)***
1.34
0.22
(0.08)**
1.25
No, cannot go to any place
0.24
(0.04)***
1.27
0.55
(0.09)***
1.73
Unescorted mobility outside V/N (ref. = Yes, all 3 places)
Yes, only to 2 places
0.18
(0.10)
1.20
0.21
(0.06)***
1.23
Yes, only to 1 place
0.08
(0.09)
1.08
0.09
(0.06)
1.09
No, cannot go to any place
−0.02
(0.09)
0.98
0.03
(0.07)
1.03
Access to money (ref. = owns and operates account)
Owns but does not operate account
−0.04
(0.08)
0.96
0.28
(0.11)
1.32
Does not own an account
−0.02
(0.06)
0.98
0.16
(0.06)**
1.17
Egalitarian gender role attitudes (ref. = 6 or more items)
