Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in the Detection and Characterisation of Cardiovascular Disease: Key Studies

Table 3

Summary of metabolite changes from metabolomics studies.

Study	Subject	Upregulated metabolites	Downregulated metabolites	Sample	Author
CAD	36 triple vessel disease versus 30 control	Lipids (0.84–0.88 and 1.24–1.36 ppm)	Lipids (1.20–1.24 ppm), choline	Serum	Brindle et al. [43]
Severity of CAD	28 severe versus 20 moderate versus 28 mild	Lipids		Serum	Brindle et al. [43]
CAD	244 male versus 78 female	Lipids (0.04 ppm bins at 0.92, 1.28, 1.32 and 1.36 ppm)	Lipids (0.04 ppm bins at 0.80, 1.16, 1.20 and 1.24 ppm)	Plasma	Kirschenlohr et al. [44]
Cardiovascular risk	LDL (42 LQ versus 44 HQ)	𝛼-ketoglutarate, dimethylglycine		Plasma	Bernini et al. [45]
Cardiovascular risk	HDL (42 LQ versus 44 HQ)	Creatinine, threonine	3-hydroxybutyrate	Plasma	Bernini et al. [45]
Cardiovascular risk	Triglycerides (150 LQ versus 151 HQ)	Acetate, citrate, creatine, dimethylglycine, glucose, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, serine, tyrosine	Creatinine, threonine	Plasma	Bernini et al. [45]
Cardiovascular risk	TC (153 LQ versus 153 HQ)	𝛼-ketoglutarate, dimethylglycine, serine		Plasma	Bernini et al. [45]
Cardiovascular risk	HDL : LDL (LQ versus HQ) (patient numbers not specified)	Creatinine, threonine	3-hydroxybutyrate	Plasma	Bernini et al. [45]
AF	8 AF (valve) versus 8 SR (valve)	Tyrosine, glycine, 𝛽-hydroxybutyrate		Atrial appendage tissue extract	Mayr et al. [46]
AF	11 SR-AF (CABG) versus 11 SR (CABG)		𝛽-hydroxybutyrate, glucose, acetate	Atrial appendage tissue extract	Mayr et al. [46]
AF	22 CABG (SR + SR-AF) versus 15 valve (SR + SR-AF)		Valine, glucose, acetate, glutamate, glutamine, choline, phosphocholine, carnitine, taurine, creatine	Atrial appendage tissue extract	Mayr et al. [46]
Stable carotid atherosclerosis	9 patient versus 10 control, including diabetics	Creatinine, acetoacetate	Formate, alanine, proline	Plasma	Teul et al. [47]
Stable carotid atherosclerosis	9 patient versus 10 control, excluding diabetics	Creatinine, acetoacetate, 3-hydroxybutyrate, glycerol	Formate, alanine, proline, isoleucine	Plasma	Teul et al. [47]
Exercise-induced ischemia in SSCAD	22 ischaemic versus 9 non- ischaemic	Glucose, lactate, valine, leucine, isoleucine	Lipids	Serum	Barba et al. [48]
T1DM and diabetic nephropathy	182 T1DM versus 21 non-diabetic	See text	See text	Serum	Mäkinen et al. [29]

Upregulated/downregulated metabolite levels for first group of patients per study versus second; AF: atrial fibrillation; CABG: coronary artery bypass grafting; CAD: coronary artery disease; HDL: high density lipoprotein; HQ: highest quintile; LDL: low density lipoprotein; LQ: lowest quintile; SR: sinus rhythm; SR-AF: sinus rhythm-atrial fibrillation; SSCAD: suspected stable coronary artery disease; T1DM: type 1 diabetes mellitus. All studies were human studies. All metabolite level changes were statistically significant according to the tests performed within the publication.