Exploring Epistemological Trends in Students’ Understanding of Science from the Perspective of Large-Scale Studies

Table 1

Overview of how the emphases are used when categorizing the PISA items.

Solid foundation	Items that focus on science content that may facilitate future science instruction and education
Correct explanations	Items that focus on scientific facts and products without any requirement to understand underlying scientific models or theories
Self as explainer	Items demanding explanations and understanding of natural phenomena and theories
Everyday coping	Items emphasizing science as an important means for understanding and controlling everyday situations
Scientific skill development	Items that accentuate the practical parts of science, how to conduct an inquiry, plan an experiment, and handle equipment along with what can be learned from these situations
Science, technology, and decisions	Items focusing on applying and considering scientific knowledge to make valid and attentive decisions about the future and society
Structure of science	Items highlighting how science intellectually functions in its own growth and development, the interplay between evidence and theory, and the adequacy of a model to explain phenomena