Research Article
Serum Retinol and Carotenoids in Association with Biomarkers of Insulin Resistance among Premenopausal Women
Table 1
Demographic characteristics of women by tertiles of serum retinol and β-carotene.
| | | Tertiles of serum retinol | | Tertiles of serum β-carotene | | | | T1 () | T2 () | T3 () | | T1 () | T2 () | T3 () | | | | | μg/mL | | | | μg/mL | | |
| | Retinol (μg/mL) | 0.30 (0.04) | 0.38 (0.02) | 0.48 (0.06) | n/a | 0.37 (0.09) | 0.39 (0.08) | 0.39 (0.08) | 0.31 | | β-carotene (μg/mL) | 0.15 (0.10) | 0.22 (0.14) | 0.20 (0.14) | 0.004 | 0.08 (0.02) | 0.16 (0.02) | 0.33 (0.13) | n/a | | Age (years) | 27.2 (8) | 27.2 (8) | 27.5 (9) | 0.95 | 26.5 (8.3) | 27.2 (8.04) | 28.9 (8.4) | 0.15 | | BMI (kg/m2) | 24.5 (4) | 23.3 (3) | 24.5 (4) | 0.09 | 24.8 (3.8) | 24.4 (4.2) | 23.2 (3.6) | 0.02 | | WHR (cm) | 0.76 (0.05) | 0.74 (0.04) | 0.76 (0.05) | 0.002 | 0.76 (0.07) | 0.75 (0.04) | 0.74 (0.05) | 0.02 | | Race, (%) | | | | | | | | | | White | 38 (45%) | 50 (59%) | 63 (75%) | | 49 (60%) | 53 (65%) | 46 (57%) | | | Black | 36 (43%) | 17 (20%) | 11 (13%) | <0.001 | 20 (25%) | 13 (16%) | 13 (16%) | 0.21 | | Other | 10 (12%) | 18 (21%) | 10 (12%) | | 12 (15%) | 9 (19%) | 22 (27%) | | | Physical activity, (%) | | | | | | | | | | Low | 12 (14%) | 6 (7%) | 7 (8%) | | 9 (11%) | 8 (10%) | 6 (7%) | | | Moderate | 28 (33%) | 36 (42%) | 26 (31%) | 0.27 | 32 (40%) | 24 (30%) | 32 (40%) | 0.55 | | High | 44 (52%) | 43 (51%) | 51 (61%) | | 40 (49%) | 49 (60%) | 43 (53%) | | | Education, (%) | | | | | | | | | | ≤ HS | 11 (13%) | 8 (8%) | 13 (15%) | 0.53 | 15 (17%) | 11 (14%) | 6 (7%) | 0.002 | | Some college | 38 (45%) | 30 (35%) | 32 (38%) | 42 (52) | 30 (37%) | 21 (26%) | | College degree | 27 (32%) | 38 (45%) | 28 (33%) | 19 (23) | 32 (40%) | 40 (49%) | | Graduate school | 8 (10%) | 9 (11%) | 11 (13%) | 6 (7%) | 8 (10%) | 14 (17%) | | Smoking, (%) | | | | | | | | | | Nonsmoker | 31 (37%) | 37 (44%) | 29 (35%) | | 26 (32%) | 30 (37%) | 38 (50%) | | | Passively exposed | 48 (57%) | 47 (55%) | 51 (61%) | 0.412 | 50 (62%) | 47 (58%) | 42 (52%) | 0.222 | | Smoker | 5 (6%) | 1 (1%) | 4 (5%) | | 5 (6%) | 4 (5%) | 1 (1%) | | | Total calories (kcal) | 1510 (314) | 1614 (352) | 1676 (348) | 0.009 | 1585 (317) | 1613 (382) | 1636 (361) | 0.65 | | Total fat (% kcal) | 34.0 (6) | 33.4 (5) | 34.1 (6) | 0.71 | 34 (5) | 34 (6) | 33 (5) | 0.34 | | Triglycerides (mg/dL)1 | 47 (38–66) | 51 (38–70) | 64 (47–88) | <0.001 | 60 (44–81) | 52 (39–67) | 51 (38–73) | 0.21 | | Total cholesterol (mg/dL)1 | 165 (147–189) | 165 (148–182) | 174 (152–193) | 0.19 | 164 (148–179) | 165 (151–189) | 172 (150–193) | 0.11 | | HDL (mg/dL)1 | 49 (41–58) | 51 (44–60) | 53 (43–62) | 0.22 | 47 (39–58) | 50 (44–59) | 51 (45–61) | 0.05 | | LDL (mg/dL)1 | 102 (88–124) | 100 (86–117) | 104 (89–125) | 0.68 | 102 (88–115) | 104 (86–127) | 102 (89–124) | 0.18 |
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Mean (SD) unless indicated.
Abbreviations. WHR: waist-to-hip ratio; HS: high school.
1Median (25th–75th percentile).
2Exact Test.
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