Phantom Limb Pain: Mechanisms and Treatment Approaches

Table 3

Treatments for phantom limb pain.

Pharmacotherapy	Surgical/invasive procedures	Adjuvant therapy
Opioids	Stump revision	Transcutaneous nerve stimulation
Morphine	Nerve block	Mirror therapy
Tramadol	Neurectomy	Biofeedback
Tricyclic Antidepressants	Rhizotomy	Temperature biofeedback
Amitriptyline	Cordotomy	Electro myographic biofeedback
Nortriptyline	Lobectomy	Massage
Imipramine	Sympathectomy	Ultrasound
Desipramine	CNS stimulation	Physiotherapy
AntiConvulsants	Spinal cord stimulation	Sensory discrimination training
Carbamazepine	Deep brain/thalamus stimulation	Prosthesis training
Oxcarbazepine	Cortical stimulation	Cognitive behavioral pain management
Gabapentin		Electroconvulsive therapy
Pregabalin
Sodium channel blockers
Lidocaine
Bupivacaine
Mexiletine
NMDA receptor antagonist
Memantine
Ketamine

Adapted from [4, 41].