Membrane Fouling and Chemical Cleaning in Three Full-Scale Reverse Osmosis Plants Producing Demineralized Water

Figure 5

Fouling characterization from membrane and spacer samples from three RO locations studied. From (a)–(d), polysaccharides and proteins, total organic carbon, adenosine triphosphate, and colony-forming units on R2A agar.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)