Review Article
Intracellular Pathogens: Host Immunity and Microbial Persistence Strategies
Table 2
Selected mechanisms for evasion of host defense by persistent intracellular pathogens.
| Mechanism | Pathogen(s) | Pathogen type | Remarks | Reference(s) |
| Immunomodulation | Salmonella spp. | B | Lipid A modification | [186] | Leptospira interrogans | B | Peptidoglycan modification | [187, 188] | Poxvirus | V | Host cytokine decoy receptors | [189] | Herpesvirus | V | Host cytokine and chemokine decoy receptors | [190] | Mycobacterium tuberculosis | B | ESX secretion system | [191] | Salmonella typhimurium | B | Type III secretion system | [192] | Brucella abortus | B | Type IV secretion system | [193] | Staphylococcus aureus | B | Ess secretion system | [194] | Bacillus subtilis | B | Yuk/Yue secretion system | [195] |
| Antigenic variation | Influenza virus | V | Antigenic drift/shift | [196] | Neisseria spp. | B | DNA rearrangement | [197, 198] | Plasmodium spp. | P | Programmed gene rearrangement | [199] | S. Typhimurium | B | DNA rearrangement | [200] | Trypanosoma brucei | P | Programmed gene rearrangement | [201] | Hepatitis C virus | V | DNA rearrangement | [202] | Human immunodeficiency virus | V | DNA rearrangement | [203] |
| Hiding in safe target cells/tissues | Epstein-Barr virus | V | B cells | [204] | Herpes simplex virus | V | Sensory neurons | [27, 205] | Leishmania spp. | P | Fibroblasts | [206] | Mycobacterium leprae | B | Peripheral nerves (Schwann cells) | [207] | Salmonella enterica Typhi | B | Reticuloendothelial system | [208] | Toxoplasma spp. | P | Cerebellar neurons | [209] | Varicella zoster virus | V | Dorsal root ganglia | [210] |
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B: bacteria; P: protozoa; V: virus.
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