|
| Mechanism | Pathogen(s) | Pathogen type | Remarks | Reference(s) |
|
| Subversion of host defense | Brucella spp. | B | Inhibit fusion with host lysosomal compartment and alter lysosomal pH | [211] |
| Chlamydiae spp. | B | Degradation of host proteins and deactivation of neutrophils by chlamydial protease-like activating factor | [212, 213] |
| Francisella tularensis | B | Escape into cytosol | [214] |
| Anaplasma phagocytophilum | B | Inhibits autophagosomal-lysosomal fusion | [215] |
| Legionella pneumophila | B | Membrane-bound vacuole and effector protein (Ank protein) release | [216] |
| Listeria monocytogenes | B | Escape into cytosol | [217] |
| Mycobacterium tuberculosis | B | Inhibition of phagolysosome formation | [183] |
| Rickettsia spp. | B | Escape into cytosol and replicate in cytoplasm of host cell | [218] |
| Salmonella enterica Typhi | B | Inhibit fusion with host lysosomal compartment and alter lysosomal pH | [36, 219, 220] |
| Toxoplasma gondii | B | Generate own vesicle | [221] |
|
| Resistance to host effector mechanisms | Cytomegalovirus | V | Inhibition of humoral immunity and inflammatory response. Blockage of Ag processing and presentation | [63] |
| Epstein-Barr virus | V | Inhibition of inflammatory response | [204, 222] |
| Herpes simplex virus | V | Inhibition of humoral immunity and blockage of Ag processing and presentation | [27, 205] |
| Leishmania spp. | P | Silent phagocytosis | [206] |
| Mycobacterium tuberculosis | B | Ability to persist in macrophages | [183] |
| Vaccinia virus | V | Inhibition of humoral immunity and inflammatory response | [223–225] |
|
| Induction of inappropriate immune responses/immunosuppression/Tregs | Hepatitis C virus (HCV) | B | Immunosuppression by complement regulatory pathway | [160, 226–228] |
| Mycobacterium leprae | B | Immunosuppression of Th2 cytokines, indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase | [159, 229] |
| HCV | V | Induction of Tregs | [160, 227] |
| Human immunodeficiency virus | V | Induction of Tregs | [161] |
| Leishmania major | P | Induction of Tregs | [103, 230] |
| M. Tuberculosis | B | Induction of Tregs | [231] |
| Plasmodium spp. | P | Induction of Tregs | [232] |
|
