|
| Helminth | Antigen | Immunoregulatory mechanism | References |
|
| Schistosoma mansoni | LNFPIII (lacto-N-fucopentaoseIII)/SEA (soluble egg antigen) | Interact with TLR4 to produce Th2 polarizing DCs | [60] |
|
| Schistosoma mansoni | Schistosome lysophosphatidylserine | Interact with TLR2 to induce Treg polarizing DCs | [61] |
|
| Acanthocheilonema viteae | ES-62 | Exert immunomodulatory effects on macrophages and DCs by a TLR4-dependent mechanism with consequent Th2 polarisation | [62–64] |
|
| Nippostrongylus brasiliensis | Excretory-secretory antigen (NES) | Potently induce Th2 type of response via DC | [65] |
|
| Brugia malayi adult | Cystatins (cysteine protease inhibitors) CIP-2 | Interfere with antigen processing in human cells and inhibits B cells | [66, 67] |
| Cytokine homologue MIF-1/2 | Alternatively activate macrophages | [68] |
|
| Brugia malayi microfilariae | Serpins (serine protease inhibitors) SPN-2 | Block neutrophil protease and promote Th1 type of response | [69] |
|
| Brugia malayi L3 larvae | ALT-1/2 proteins | Inhibit macrophage resistance and present good filarial vaccine candidate | [70] |
|
| Toxocara canis | TES32—C type lectin (CTL) | Inhibit TLR responses on DC and compete with host lectins for ligands, thereby blocking host immunity | [71, 72] |
|
| Heligmosomoides polygyrus | Excretory-secretory antigen (HES) | Induce regulatory T cells through TGF-βR | [37] |
|
| Teladorsagia circumcincta | Excretory-secretory antigen | Induce generation of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells through TGF-β mimicking effect | [73] |
|
| Trichinella spiralis | Adult excretory-secretory antigen (AdES); newborn larvae antigen (NBL);
crude muscle larvae antigen (MLCr) | All antigens from different life stages induce polarization towards mixed Th1/Th2 with predominance of Th2 response, via semimatured DC | [74] |
| Excretory secretory muscle larvae antigen | Induce mixed Th1/Th2 response with the predominance of Th2 component and elicit regulatory arm of immune response | [75] |
| Excretory secretory muscle larvae antigen | Interfere with LPS-induced DC maturation and induce expansion of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells | [22] |
|
| Fasciola hepatica | Thioredoxin peroxides | Alternatively activated macrophages | [76] |
|
