Diversity of Ethiopian Durum Wheat Landraces for Resistance to Stem Rust Seedling Resistance Genes

Chiko, Silas; Kebede Gessese, Mesfin; Shimelash, Daniel; Haile, Wondimeneh Taye; Melo, Belay Yebo; Wassie, Adera Sisay; Lakore, Zemach Sorsa; Kassie, Fentanesh Chekole

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3023427

Advances in Agriculture

On this page

Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion Discussion Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2022 | Article ID 3023427 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3023427

Diversity of Ethiopian Durum Wheat Landraces for Resistance to Stem Rust Seedling Resistance Genes

Silas Chiko,¹Mesfin Kebede Gessese,¹Daniel Shimelash,¹Wondimeneh Taye Haile,¹Belay Yebo Melo,¹Adera Sisay Wassie,¹Zemach Sorsa Lakore,¹and Fentanesh Chekole Kassie¹

Academic Editor: Euripedes Silveira Junior

Received23 Jan 2022

Accepted03 Jun 2022

Published26 Sept 2022

Abstract

Stem rust caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (Pgt) is one of the most important diseases of wheat worldwide. Breeding for resistance to diseases is the most important approach for mitigation of yield losses. This study was conducted to estimate the diversity of all stage stem rust resistance (ASR) genes on the 142 durum wheat landrace accessions at seedling stage. The study was conducted in greenhouse at Ambo Plant Protection Research Center on the 142 durum wheat landrace accessions using 20 differential lines, one susceptible line (McNair), and eight Pgt races. The result depicted the presence of Sr7b, Sr8a, Sr9b, Sr10, Sr11, Sr13, Sr17, Sr30, Sr31, Sr36, and SrTmp in the Ethiopian durum wheat accessions. Among the 142 durum wheat accessions, 83 accessions were identified for possessing single ASR genes, and four accessions including the universal susceptible line (McNair) did not have effective resistance genes to the pathogen races tested in this study. The remaining 55 accessions had either a combination of two resistance genes, unknown number and kind of genes, or unidentified genes displaying resistance across all the pathogen races. This study demonstrated the prevalence of significant genetic diversity for stem rust ASR genes in the Ethiopian durum wheat landraces.

1. Introduction

In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Ethiopia is the largest producer of wheat with approximately 1.7 million ha of land under cultivation [1]. Wheat is fourth in area coverage and third in amount of grain production following maize and teff in the country [2]. In Ethiopia, more than 90 bread and 36 durum wheat varieties have been released for production since 1950s. However, the national average yield is 2.42 t/ha, which is far less than the world average of 3.43 t/ha [1]. The low productivity is attributed to lack of varieties resistant to the prevalent wheat rusts, namely, the stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici Eriks. and E. Henn), leaf rust (P. triticina Eriks.), and stripe rust (P. striiformis Westend. f. sp. tritici Eriks.), which are the major important diseases.

Stem rusts are managed by cultural control, chemical applications, and use of resistant varieties, in which case the third option is the best strategy [3,4]. Wheat producers in Ethiopia require disease resistant varieties which were farmers-friendly, environmentally safe, and cost effective. It is important to identify sources of resistance genes in order to develop disease resistant wheat cultivars. One of the rich sources of stress resistance germplasm is landraces or farmers’ varieties, which are also known to be reservoirs of genetic resources like resistance genes for several plant diseases including wheat rust [5–7].

Use of crop diversity is a key approach to improve productivity and achieve food security [8]. Ethiopian durum wheat landraces are diverse and possess high variation for economically important agronomic traits including resistance/tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses but are not exploited enough [9–11]. The durum accessions contributed to the world wheat varietal improvement; for instance, the Ethiopian durum wheat landrace ST464 was one of the major sources of Sr13 [12]. Most commonly three of the stem rust resistance genes (Sr9d, Sr9e, and Sr13) are present in many T. durum genotypes alone or in various combinations [13]. However, the adequacy of the resistance genes believed to be present in those cultivars may not be effective in providing full protection against the pathogen [14]. Therefore, it is important to expand our knowledge on the response of the Ethiopian durum wheat accessions to the current pathogen populations. Hence, we need to search new sources of stem rust resistance genes, particularly host plants possessing durable resistance genes/nonrace specific resistance genes [5, 6].

The source of seeds used by majority of durum wheat growing farmers in Ethiopia is landraces consisting of large numbers of different genetic backgrounds [9]. For identification of resistant sources of genes, germplasms were assessed from known sources and screened for triple resistance to wheat rust diseases [15, 16]. Colomba and Gregorini [17] reported that there are six types of Triticum species grown in Ethiopia, namely, T. dicoccum, T. turgidum, T. durum, T. polonocim, T. pyramidale, and T. carthilcum. Among those, T. durum (durum wheat) and Triticum aestivum are the most dominantly grown species. For future use in research and maintenance of the available germplasm, the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC) has collected more than 12,726 accessions of Triticum species from various agroecological zones of Ethiopia and, out of those, tetraploid wheat species accounted for 72% of the germplasm collection [18]. Therefore, durum wheat accessions collected from different agroecologies and locations are considered to vary for resistance to diseases and pests, grain yield, and adaptation to specific environmental situations and are generally considered initial ground for durum wheat improvement program [18]. Hence, this study was conducted with the general objective of evaluating the genetic diversity of durum wheat accessions grown in Ethiopia for resistance to stem rust pathogen (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of Study Areas

Greenhouse study was conducted at Ambo Plant Protection Research Center (APPRC), Jibat Woreda, during 2020 crop growing season. The center has national mandate for stem rust race analysis and gene postulation tests. It is located at geographic coordinates of 08°57′58″N and 37°51′33″E latitude and longitude, respectively. The study site is also situated at an altitude of 2175 m.a.s.l.

2.2. Experimental Materials

2.2.1. Plant Materials

142 durum wheat accessions were obtained from the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, and 20 stem rust near isogenic differential lines were used in combination with the durum wheat accessions. In addition, a universal susceptible cultivar (McNair 701) was included as a control (Tables 1–4).

2.2.2. Pathogen Materials

Eight Pgt races (TTKSK (Ug99), TTTTF, TTRTF, JRCQC, TKTTF, TRTTF, TTKTT, and TKKTF) were used for gene postulation from Ambo plant protection laboratory.

2.3. Green House Experiment

2.3.1. Experimental Design and Treatments

Pot experiment for evaluating seedlings in the greenhouse was conducted to infer resistance genes in the 142 wheat accessions including one control susceptible cultivar (McNair) and 20 differential lines following the method described by Roelfs and Marten [19]. 25 seeds from 142 durum wheat accessions and 15 seeds of each differential line were pregerminated on moist filter paper in 90 cm Petri dish. After two days, five sprouting seeds were transplanted into a 5 cm diameter plastic pot filled with sterilized soil, sand, and compost at the ratio of 2 : 1 : 1. Each pot was replicated twice and placed in seedling growth chamber room until two primary leaves were emerged for inoculation. In the same manner, the differential accessions were planted in pots and were arranged in four sets of five groups according to the following orders (Table 5): Group i: Sr5, Sr2l, Sr9e, and Sr7b; Group ii: Sr11, Sr6, Sr8a, and Sr9g; Group iii: Sr36, Sr9b, Sr30, and Sr17; Group iv: Sr9a, Sr9d, Sr10, and SrTmp; Group v: Sr24, Sr31, and Sr38, including SrMcN, the susceptible accession McNair without Sr gene, used as control [19].

2.3.2. Inoculum Preparation and Inoculation

For the eight predominant stem rust races (TTKSK (Ug99), TKTTF, JRCQC, TRTTF, TTRTF, TTKTT, TKKTF, and TTTTF), their virulence spectra on the stem rust differentials are described in Table 6. Techniques for inoculum production, collection, storage, and inoculation followed the standard guideline produced by Roelfs et al. [21]. Increasing of urediospore bulk sample was conducted on susceptible cultivar (McNair). The method used for deriving single isolate, characterization, and nomenclature was described by Fetch and Dunsmore [22]. One gelatin capsule of freshly harvested urediospores prepared by suspending 14 mg in 0.75 ml lightweight mineral oil, Soltrol 170 (Chevron Phillips Chemical Company, The Woodlands, Texas, United States) was used to inoculate on 48 accessions (240 seedlings per tray). Inoculation was done using atomized inoculator by spraying when the seedlings have fully expanded primary leaves and the second leaves begin to grow after seven days at seedling stage [23]. Inoculated seedlings were moistened with fine droplets of distilled water produced with an atomizer and placed in a dew chamber in darkness for 18 hours at 18 to 22°C temperature and 98 to 100% relative humidity. Upon removal from dark chamber, plants were exposed to 4 hours of fluorescent light to provide condition for infection and allowed to dry dew for about 2 hours. Inoculated plants were then transferred to greenhouse benches where conditions were regulated at 12 hours’ photoperiod, with temperature range of 18 to 25°C and relative humidity (RH) of 60 to 70% [24].

2.4. Data Collection

2.4.1. Disease Parameters

In the greenhouse, data recording for seedling infection types began after 14 days of inoculation using the 0–4 scoring scale developed by Stakman et al. [25], where 0 indicates immune or fleck; 1 indicates small uredia with necrosis; 2 indicates small-to-medium uredia with chlorosis or necrosis; 3 indicates medium-size uredia with/without chlorosis; and 4 indicates large uredia without chlorosis or necrosis. The scales up to the rate of 2 were considered to be incompatible, while the rates above 3 were regarded as compatible reactions. The infection types were defined by modifying characters as follows: −, uredinia somewhat smaller than normal; +, uredinia somewhat larger than normal for the infection type.

2.5. Data Analysis and Interpretation

Seedling resistance genes were postulated based on the gene-for-gene specificity hypothesis between the host resistance genes and the avirulence genes in the pathogen by correlating the response of the differential sets of each pathogen with the response of the host genotypes. To interpret the results from the multipathotype tests, a differential response key for a given gene based on responses of the target differential genotype against an array of pathotypes was generated (Table 5). This key was used to postulate the resistance genes which occurred singly in various entries. Postulation of more than one resistance gene per entry was performed when deviation from the usual infection type was shown by a particular resistance gene, as evidenced by the specific infection types.

3. Results and Discussion

The gene postulation result depicted the presence of diverse types and numbers of stem rust resistance genes in the Ethiopian durum wheat accessions (Tables 1–4). Among the 142 durum wheat accessions evaluated for the presence of stem rust resistance genes, 83 were found to possess nine different kinds of (Sr7b, Sr8a, Sr9b, Sr10, Sr11, Sr30, Sr31, Sr36, and SrTmp) singly postulated stem rust resistance genes. Four accessions (5180, 204463, 222433, and 203968) including the universal susceptible line (McNair) did not have effective resistance genes to the pathogen races tested in this study. The remaining 55 accessions had either a combination of two resistance genes (like Sr13 and Sr17 postulated on 23 of the accessions), unknown number and kind of genes (where the ITs displayed could not be correlated/matched with the ITs of the tested 20 differential lines), or unidentified genes displaying resistance across all the pathogen races (Table 4).

3.1. Group 1: Durum Wheat Accessions Postulated for Possessing Single Resistance Genes

The largest portions (58.45%) of the durum wheat accessions were found to possess only one (a single) stem rust resistance gene. Among the singly postulated stem rust resistance genes, the most frequent resistance gene was Sr11 (18.31%), followed by Sr10 (12.67%), Sr36 (9.15%), and Sr9b (5.6%). On the other hand, Sr31 (3.5%), Sr8a (2.8%), SrTmp (2.1%), Sr7b (1.4%), and Sr30 (0.7%) were the least postulated genes. The durum wheat accessions and their phenotypic expressions (disease reaction) against each of the eight Pgt races with the corresponding disease reaction of the differential cultivars are presented in Table 1. The above nine kinds of Sr resistance genes were postulated by comparing the IT patterns of the eight different Pgt races on the 83 durum wheat accessions with those of the differential lines possessing the known resistance genes as displayed.

3.2. Group 2: Durum Wheat Accessions with Two All Stage Resistance (ASR) Genes

Accessions that showed low ITs similar to a combination of two resistance genes with compensating pathotypic specificities were postulated to carry the corresponding two Sr genes. In this case, 23 durum wheat accessions exhibited exactly identical ITs displayed by the differential cultivar “Combination V” that is known to carry Sr13 + Sr17 together (Table 2).

3.3. Group 3: Durum Wheat Accessions Postulated to Carry More than Two Genes

The three durum wheat accessions 226867, 222422, and 208206 were postulated to carry three or more (Sr11, Sr36, and other unknown) resistance genes in combination (Table 3). These accessions displayed low infection types to six of the Pgt races (TTKSK, TKTTF, JRCQC, TTKTT, TKKTF, and TTTTF) and high ITs for the remaining two Pgt races (TRTTF and TTRTF). The Sr36 carrying differential line W2691SrTt-1 had low ITs to four of the Pgt races (TTKSK, JRCQC, TTKTT, and TKKTF), whereas it showed high ITs to the remaining four Pgt races. Meanwhile Sr11 carrying differential line ISr11-Ra displayed low ITs to only two Pgt races (TKTTF and TKKTF) and high ITs to the remaining six Pgt races. The three durum wheat accessions’ IT patterns matched with the combinations of the IT patterns displayed by Sr11 and Sr36 except the low IT displayed for the Pgt race TTTTF that prompted the inclusion of another (other) unknown Sr gene(s).

3.4. Group 4: Durum Wheat Accessions Carrying Unknown/Unidentified Sr Genes

In this group, 29 durum wheat accessions were included, which were further divided into two subgroups. The first subgroup contained 15 accessions, which exhibited low infection types for all the tested races (Table 4). We could not postulate a known Sr gene(s) to this subgroup because the differential lines were susceptible to at least one of the Pgt races that did not match with the infection patterns produced by a specific or a combination of two or greater number of genes. The second subgroup consisted of 14 durum wheat accessions that displayed unique high and low IT patterns that we could not find a match to either a specific known gene or combinations of two or more genes with the available data of the seedling reaction of differential lines with the eight Pgt races. The differential lines carrying Sr genes Sr21, Sr9e, Sr6, Sr9g, Sr9a, and Sr9d did show high infection types for all the eight tested Pgt races; hence, they were excluded from this study.

4. Discussion

Stem rust is economically one of the most important diseases of wheat that could lead to 100% yield loss if susceptible cultivar is used. Germplasm development and enhancement activities should be given more attention for mining novel stem rust resistance genes by screening diverse sources of germplasm collections in order to combat the devastating effects of stem rust disease. Ethiopia is highly endowed with durum wheat genetic diversity owing to the presence of large number of collections of tetraploid wheat germplasms maintained in the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation. Additionally, cultivation of landraces of durum wheat by millions of smallholder farmers in the central highlands ensures the continuation of genetic conservation of the crop for future use. Landraces are known to be reservoirs of genetic diversity for several economically important genes that can be easily deployed to modern cultivars through conventional and modern breeding methodologies.

Gene postulation studies (multipathotype tests) conducted at seedling stages in the greenhouse facilitate identification of resistance genes controlled by major genes in the host genotypes (durum wheat plant in this case). In this study, 142 Ethiopian durum wheat accessions obtained from IBC, Ethiopia, were screened for resistance to stem rust pathogens in the greenhouse during the 2019 cropping season. The greenhouse study depicted 11 stem rust resistance genes (Sr7b, Sr8a, Sr9b, Sr10, Sr11, Sr17, Sr24, Sr30, Sr31, Sr36, and SrTmp). In agreement with the current finding, Belayneh et al. [26] postulated 11 stem rust resistance genes (Sr5, Sr7a, Sr7b, Sr8a, Sr9e, Sr11, Sr21, Sr27, Sr29, Sr30, and Sr37) from a set of 60 wheat genotypes constituted from 30 durum wheat and 30 bread wheat genotypes using 40 differential cultivars and 10 Pgt races isolated from Ethiopian Pgt population obtained from annual Pgt pathotype surveys. Similarly, Randhawa et al. [27] postulated seven kinds of stem rust resistance genes (Sr7b, Sr8a, Sr12, Sr15, Sr17, Sr23, and Sr30) from a set of 87 Nordic spring wheat cultivars using eight Australian Pgt races. In general, the multipathotype test indicated the presence of relatively appreciable diversity (11 Sr genes including Sr13+Sr17 postulated in combination) of stem rust resistance genes in the Ethiopian durum wheat landrace accessions; in particular, the set of germplasm accessions that displayed unknown and or uncharacterized Sr genes could add to additional Ug99 effective resistance genes in combinations or novel genes which are effective against all the pathotypes used in this study. Similar views were endorsed by Belayneh et al [26], Randhawa et al. [28], and Dakouri et al. [29] who identified uncharacterized/unknown genes effective against all the Pgt races used in their respective seedling tests in the greenhouse.

Regarding the number and type of stem rust resistance genes, Beteselassie et al. [16] postulated Sr7b, Sr8b, Sr9a, Sr9b, Sr10, Sr14, Sr24, Sr27, Sr28, Sr29, Sr30, Sr31, Sr32, and SrTt-3 + Sr10 on 16 emmer and 5 durum wheat landrace accessions (obtained from IBC, Ethiopia) using 10 Pgt races and 33 differential accessions. These authors reported more diverse types of Sr genes compared to the current study that might be due to the use of 33 differential lines and 10 types of Pgt races and evaluation of two different tetraploid wheat species (emmer and durum wheat). In the same manner, Belayneh et al. [26] used 40 differential cultivars and lines representing 40 different Sr genes and 10 Pgt races. Those authors were able to postulate Sr9e, Sr14, Sr21, Sr27, Sr28, Sr29, Sr32, and Sr37, whereas this study lacks the differential cultivars that help to detect these genes in the durum wheat germplasm. More findings similar to the results of this study have been reported by Dyck and Sykes [30] who carried out genetic analysis of stem rust resistance in Ethiopian durum wheat germplasm that showed the presence of Sr6, Sr8a, Sr9a, Sr9d, Sr9e, Sr11, Sr13, Sr30, and Sr36.

The presence of Sr13 + Sr17 in the Ethiopian durum wheat germplasm has been reported by Banchigize-Getie [31] who evaluated 45 Ethiopian durum wheat landraces along with 35 differential cultivars and nine Pgt races for seedling resistance using multipathotype test conducted at the University of Sydney, Australia. Klindworth et al. [12] and Periyannan et al. [32] reported that durum wheat is the major source of Sr13, which is in agreement with this study. The Pgt race JRCQC in Ethiopia and other races of stem rust in several countries were reported to show virulence to Sr13; however, this gene was found to be effective against the Pgt race Ug99 (TTKSK) and its derivatives that gave it major importance worldwide to be deployed in new cultivars in order to combat this aggressive Pgt race [32]. Hence, these 23 durum wheat accessions could be good sources of stem rust resistance to be incorporated in breeding lines to develop wheat cultivars.

Several researchers postulated combination of three or more rust resistance genes in a single genotype [16, 26, 27, 31]. The durum accessions carrying a greater number of resistance genes could be excellent candidates (sources of germplasm) for gene pyramiding in transgressive breeding.

In order to solve the mysteries of the USR genes presented in Table 4, carrying out of additional such experiments with other additional differential lines and foreign Pgt races might help to identify the genes conferring resistance to stem rust in some or more of the genotypes [26]. The other option is to conduct molecular marker analysis using diagnostic DNA markers for the genes frequently found in durum wheat germplasm [33]. The last option could be to conduct genetic analysis for each of the landraces and study the stem rust inheritance to determine the type and number of gene(s) conferring resistance to these genotypes [34, 35]. Discovery of USR genes in such kinds of (multipathotype tests) experiments conducted for Ethiopian durum wheat landraces had been reported by Naod-Beteselassie et al. [16], Belayneh et al. [26], and Getie [31] who have endorsed similar views indicated above.

Generally, this study depicted 11 stem rust resistance genes either singly or in combinations of two, three, or greater number of genes. Most of these ASR genes (60% or 83 accessions) are not effective when used singly to protect the host from Pgt in the field. Hence, they should be used in combination with other effective ASR and/or APR genes; particularly the ASR genes should be selected based on their compensating race specificities. For instance, 23 of the 142 durum wheat accessions possessed Sr13 + Sr17 in combination; also 3 of them possessed Sr11 + Sr36 + USR genes. These genes showed compensating race specificities; due to this, the Sr11 + Sr36 + USR possessing accessions were resistant to six of the eight races, whereas the Sr13 + Sr17 possessing accessions were resistant to all races of the pathogens tested. The remaining 29 accessions possessed unidentified stem rust resistance genes. Such findings are not uncommon in such kinds of experiments. These types of genetic materials could be potential sources of novel genes for rust resistance genes. Further studies such as genetic analysis (inheritance studies) and molecular marker analysis would lead to identification and characterization of the USR genes.

Data Availability

All the data related to this manuscript are included in the manuscript. If any additional information is needed and is available, the authors can provide it upon request to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

This research work was financially supported by the research and community services of Wolaita Sodo University. The authors acknowledge Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute and Ambo Agricultural Research Center of Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research for supplying the seeds of wheat genotypes used in this study and hosting the greenhouse seedling test, respectively. Thanks are due to Wolaita Sodo University research and community services for funding the research work.

References

Faostat, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Provisional, 2016 Production and Production Indices Data, Crop primary, Rome, Italy, 2018.
Faostat, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Provisional, 2016 Production and Production Indices Data, Crop primary, Rome, Italy, 2017.
K. J. Leonard and L. J. Szabo, “Stem rust of small grains and grasses caused by Pucciniagraminis,” Molecular Plant Pathology, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 99–111, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. P. Roelfs and W. R. Bushnell, The cereal rusts, Academic Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1985.
U. Bansal, H. Bariana, D. Wong et al., “Molecular mapping of an adult plant stem rust resistance gene Sr56 in winter wheat cultivar Arina,” Theoretical and Applied Genetics, vol. 127, no. 6, pp. 1441–1448, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Burt, L. L. Griffe, A. P. Ridolfini, S. Orford, S. Griffiths, and P. Nicholson, “Mining the Watkins collection of wheat landraces for novel sources of eyespot resistance,” Plant Pathology, vol. 63, no. 6, pp. 1241–1250, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Gessese, H. Bariana, D. Wong, M. Hayden, and U. Bansal, “Molecular mapping of stripe rust resistance gene Yr81 in a common wheat landrace Aus27430,” Plant Disease, vol. 103, no. 6, pp. 1166–1171, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Tilman, P. B. Reich, J. Knops, D. Wedin, T. Mielke, and C. Lehman, “Diversity and productivity in a long term grassland experiment,” Science, vol. 294, no. 5543, pp. 843–845, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. Arega, M. Hussein, and S. Harjit, “Genetic divergence in selected durum wheat genotypes of Ethiopian germplasm,” African Crop Science Journal, vol. 15, pp. 67–72, 2007.
View at: Google Scholar
F. Hailu, E. Johansson, and A. Merker, “Patterns of phenotypic diversity for phenologic and qualitative traits in Ethiopian tetraploid wheat germplasm,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 781–790, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Teklu and K. Hammer, “Diversity of Ethiopian tetraploid wheat germplasm: breeding opportunities for improving grain yield potential and quality traits,” Plant Genetic Resources, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1–8, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. J. Klindworth, Y. Miller, and S. Jin, “Chromosomal of genes for stem rust resistance in monogenic accessions derived from durum wheat accession ST464,” Crop Science, vol. 47, pp. 1012-1013, 2007.
View at: Google Scholar
H. S. Bariana, “Stem rust resistance in wheat—the Australian experience,” in Proceedings of the international conference on wheat stem rust Ug99—a threat to food security, New Delhi, India, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
W. Denbel, Z. Tadese, D. Kassa et al., “Development of wheat germplasm for stem rust resistance in eastern Africa,” African Crop Science Journal, vol. 24, no. 1, p. 25, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Faris, “Genetic diversity and grain protein composition of tetraploid wheat (Triticum Durum Desf) germplasm from Ethiopia,” Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, 2011, Dissertation.
View at: Google Scholar
N. Beteselassie, C. Fininsa, A. Badebo, and A. BAdebo, “Sources of stem rust resistance in Ethiopian tetraploid wheat accessions,” African Crop Science Journal, vol. 15, no. 1, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. S. Colomba and A. Gregorini, “Genetic diversity analysis of the durum wheat Graziella Ra, Triticum turgidum L.subsp. durum (Desf) Husn.(Poales, Poaceae),” Biodiversity Journal, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 73–84, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
D. K. Mengistu, Y. G. Kidane, C. Fadda, and M. E. Pè, “Genetic diversity in Ethiopian durum wheat (Triticum turgidum var durum) inferred from phenotypic variations,” Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 39–49, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. P. Roelfs and J. W. Martens, “An International System of Nomenclature forPuccinia graminisf. sp.tritici,” Graminis F. Sp. Tritici. Phytopathology, vol. 78, no. 5, p. 526, 1988.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. A. Pretorius, L. J. Szabo, W. H. P. Boshoff, L. Herselman, and B. Visser, “First report of a new TTKSF race of wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici) in South Africa and Zimbabwe,” Plant Disease, vol. 96, no. 4, p. 590, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. P. Roelfs, R. P. Singh, and E. E. Saari, Rust Diseases of Wheat: Concepts and Methods of Disease Management, CIMMYT, Mexico, 1992.
T. G. Fetch and K. M. Dunsmore, “Physiological specialization of Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici on wheat, barley, and oat in Canada in 2001,” Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 148–155, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. C. Zadoks, T. T. Chang, and C. F. Konzak, “A decimal code for the growth stages of cereals,” Weed Research, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 415–421, 1974.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. W. Stubbs, J. M. Prescott, E. E. Saari, and H. J. Dubin, “Cereal Disease Methodology Manual,” Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), México, p. 46, 1986.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Stakman, D. M. Stewart, and Q. W. Loegering, Identification of Physiologic Races of Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici var. tritici, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Washington, DC, USA, 1962.
A. Belayneh, F. Wolfgang, and O. Frank, “Stem rust seedling resistance genes in Ethiopian wheat cultivars and breeding accessions,” African Crop Science Journal, vol. 20, pp. 149–162, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Randhawa, U. Bansal, M. Lillemo, H. Miah, and H. Bariana, “Postulation of rust resistance genes in Nordic spring wheat genotypes and identification of widely effective sources of resistance against the Australian rust flora,” Journal of Applied Genetics. Nov, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 453–465, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Randhawa, U. Bansal, M. Valarik, B. Klocova, J. Dolezel, and H. Bariana, “Molecular mapping of stripe rust resistance gene Yr51 in chromosome 4AL of wheat,” Theoretical and Applied Genetics, vol. 127, no. 2, pp. 317–324, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Dakouri, B. D. Mccallum, N. Radovanovic, and S. Cloutier, “Molecular and phenotypic characterization of seedling and adult plant leaf rust resistance in a world wheat collection,” Molecular Breeding, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 663–677, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. L. Dyck and E. E. Sykes, “The inheritance of stem rust and leaf rust resistance in some Ethiopian wheat collections,” Euphytica, vol. 81, no. 3, pp. 291–297, 1995.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Getie, Identification, Genetic Studies and Molecular Characterization of Resistance to Stem Rust in Wheat. PhD Thesis, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, 2016.
S. Periyannan, U. Bansal, H. Bariana et al., “Identification of a robust molecular marker for the detection of the stem rust resistance gene Sr45 in common wheat,” Theoretical and Applied Genetics, vol. 127, no. 4, pp. 947–955, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Y. Li, Y. Y. Cao, X. X. Wu, X. F. Xu, and W. L. Wang, “Seedling resistance to stem rust and molecular marker analysis of resistance genes in wheat cultivars of yunnan, China,” PLoS One, vol. 11, no. 10, Article ID e0165640, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Babiker, A. M. Ibrahim, Y. Yen, and J. Stein, “Identification of a microsatellite marker associated with stem rust resistance Gene’Sr35’in wheat,” Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 3, no. 4, p. 195, 2009.
View at: Google Scholar
J. K. Haile, K. Hammer, A. Badebo, R. P. Singh, and M. S. Röder, “Haplotype analysis of molecular markers linked to stem rust resistance genes in Ethiopian improved durum wheat varieties and tetraploid wheat landraces,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 853–864, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2022 Silas Chiko et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

560

Downloads

593

Citations