Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

Review Article

A Review of Instrumented Equipment to Investigate Head Impacts in Sport

Table 3

Validation studies of head instrumentation devices.


Study	Device	Sport	Method	Headform	Impact speed [m/s]	Error data
Study	Device	Sport	Method	Headform	Impact speed [m/s]	Linear	Angular

Crisco et al. [33]	HITS	American football	Pendulum	HIII head-neck	3.0–7.0	PLA: average error of 4% PAA: average error of 17%

Manoogian et al. [35]	HITS	American football	Pendulum	HIII head-neck	2.0–5.0	HITS and HIII head measure similar linear acceleration responses

Beckwith et al. [37]	HITS	Boxing	Pendulum	HIII head-neck	3.0–7.0	PLA: underestimate by 2%; = 0.91	PAA: overestimated by 8%; = 0.91

Hanlon and Bir [38]	HITS	Soccer	Ball canon	HIII head-neck	8.0–12.0	PLA: = 0.34	PAA: = 0.57
Hanlon and Bir [38]	HITS	Soccer	Linear impactor	HIII head-neck	2.5–4.75	PLA: average error of −2 g; = 0.94	PAA: average error of −1721 rad/s²; = 0.92

Rowson et al. [94]	6DOF System	American football	Linear impactor	HIII head-neck	Impact energy: 68–608 J	PLA: RMSE = 12.5 ± 8.3 g; = 0.88	PAA: RMSE = 907 ± 685 rad/s²; = 0.85

Beckwith et al. [95]	HITS	American football	Linear impactor	HIII head-neck	4.4–11.2	PLA: = 0.82–0.99; overestimated by 1%	PAA: = 0.42–0.98; underestimated by 6%

Allison et al. [96]	HITS	Ice hockey	Linear impactor	HIII head-neck	1.5–5.0	PLA: average error of 18–31% (raw), 7–27% (adjusted); = 0.81–0.97	PAA: average error of 35–64% (raw), 13–38% (adjusted); = 0.71–0.94

Camarillo et al. [97]	MG	American football	Linear impactor	Custom head, HIII neck	3.0–8.5	PLA: RMSE = 3.9 ± 2.1 g; NRMS = 9.9 ± 4.4%; = 0.94–0.98	PAA: RMSE = 202 ± 120 rad/s²; NRMS = 9.7 ± 7.0%; = 0.61–0.98 PAV: RMSE = 1.0 ± 0.8 rad/s; NRMS = 10.4 ± 9.9%; = 0.96–0.99

Bartsch et al. [98], Aksu [99]	IMG	N/A	Drop	N/A	0.7–3.9	PLA: underestimated by 3%; > 0.99	PLA: underestimated by 17%; = 0.98

Jadischke et al. [100]	HITS	American football	Linear impactor	HIII head-neck	9.3	PLA: RMSE = 12–23%	PAA: RMSE = 30–111%
					5.0–11.2	PLA: RMSE = 16–190%	PAA: RMSE = 51–96%
					5.0–11.2	PLA: RMSE = 11–22%	PAA: RMSE = 10–26%

Allison et al. [101]	GFT	Ice hockey	Linear impactor	HIII head-neck	1.5–5.0	PLA: = 0.77–0.99	PAV: = 0.78–0.99

Bartsch et al. [102]	IMG	American football	Linear impactor	HII head (modified), HII neck	2.0–8.5	PLA: = 0.99	PAA: = 0.98 PAV: = 0.99
Bartsch et al. [102]	IMG	Boxing	Linear impactor	HII head (modified), HII neck	1.8–7.5	PLA: = 0.99	PAA: = 0.98 PAV: = 0.98

Triax Technologies [103]	SIM-G	N/A	Pendulum	NOCSAE head, Hybrid III neck	Not reported	PLA: = 0.84	PAA: = 0.78 PAV: = 0.98

Campbell et al. [104]	GFT	American football	Linear impactor	HIII head-neck	3.0–5.5	PLA: MAPE = 26–72% (raw), 2–8% (adjusted); = 0.82 (raw), 0.97 (adjusted)	PAV: MAPE = 2–16% (raw), 1–13% (adjusted); = 0.94 (raw), 0.96 (adjusted)

Cummiskey [85]	HITS	American football	Impulse hammer	HIII head-neck	Not reported	PLA: RMSE = 33–198%	PAA: RMSE = 27–209%
	X2 X-Patch	American football	Impulse hammer	HIII head-neck	Not reported	PLA: RMSE = 11–59%	PAA: RMSE = 11–350%
	Shockbox	American football	Impulse hammer	HIII head-neck	Not reported	PLA: RMSE = 92–298%
	SIM-G	American football	Impulse hammer	HIII head-neck	Not reported	PLA: RMSE = 13–75%

Nevins et al. [105]	X2 X-Patch	Soccer	Ball canon	HIII head-neck	13–27	PLA: underestimated by <25%
		Softball	Ball canon	HIII head-neck	10–20
		Lacrosse	Ball canon	HIII head-neck	27–31

Wu et al. [106]	MG	Soccer	Ball canon	Human volunteer	7	PLA: 16 ± 6% (A-P); 18 ± 10% (I-S)	PAV: 12 ± 7% (sagittal)
	X2 X-Patch	Soccer	Ball canon	Human volunteer	7	PLA: 14 ± 2% (A-P); 29 ± 30% (I-S)	PAV: 29 ± 9% (sagittal)
	Checklight	Soccer	Ball canon	Human volunteer	7	PLA: 16 ± 9% (A-P); 13 ± 5% (I-S)	PAV: 13 ± 11% (sagittal)

Kuo et al. [107]	MG	American football	Drop	ATD (no mandible)	1.4–4.4	PLA: NRMSE > 20% for 8/162 drops; = 0.85–0.99	PAA: = 0.62–0.99 PAV: = 0.84–0.99
				ATD (loose mandible)	1.4–4.4	PLA: = 0.62–0.99	PAA: = 0.56–0.99 PAV: = 0.65–0.99
				ATD (clenched mandible)	1.4–4.4	PLA: = 0.94–0.99	PAA: = 0.92–0.99 PAV: = 0.98–0.99
				Cadaver	1.4–4.4	PLA: NRMSE > 20% for 26/108 drops	PAA: NRMSE = 80% PAV: NRMSE = 40%

Siegmund et al. [108]	HITS	American football	Linear impactor	MLSH, HIII neck	3.6–11.2	PLA: mean coefficients of variation of 15 ± 9%; mean relative error of 20 ± 50%; MAPE = 32 ± 43%; = 0.63	PAA: mean coefficients of variation of 21 ± 21%; mean relative error of 9 ± 49%; MAPE = 35 ± 36%; = 0.59
Siegmund et al. [108]	X2 MG	American football	Linear impactor	MLSH, HIII neck	3.6–11.2	PLA: mean coefficients of variation of 8 ± 4%; mean relative error of −8 ± 14%; MAPE = 12 ± 10%; = 0.90	PAA: mean coefficients of variation of 23 ± 9%; mean relative error of 26 ± 61%; MAPE = 41 ± 51%; = 0.56

HITS: Head Impact Telemetry System. 12DOF: twelve degree-of-freedom measurement device. MG: mouthguard. IMG: Intelligent Mouthguard. GFT: GForceTracker. MMA: mixed-martial arts. HIII: Hybrid III. ATD: anthropomorphic test device. MLSH: modified load sensing headform. PLA: peak linear acceleration. PAA: peak angular acceleration. PAV: peak angular velocity. MAPE: mean absolute percentage error. A-P: anterior-posterior. I-S: inferior-superior.