A Systematic Review of Continuum Modeling of Skeletal Muscles: Current Trends, Limitations, and Recommendations

Table 4

Constitutive laws for active muscle modeling (II).

References	Muscles	Geometries	Fiber architecture	Constitutive laws	Simulation	Validation
Chi et al. [43]	Generic	Simplified muscle-tendon geometries	Parallel fibers at a pennation angle	Active transversely isotropic hyperelastic material	Shortening	Comparison with literature data
Lu et al. [44]	Tibialis anterior	1 New Zealand white rabbit, ideal 3D geometries	Parallel fiber distribution	Active, quasi-incompressible, transversely isotropic, and visco-hyperelastic composite material (14 parameters)	Elongation	Measured stress and strain
Rehorn and Blemker [45]	Biceps femoris longhead	1 heathy subject, 3D geometries from MRI data	Mapping technique	Active fiber-reinforced composite with transversely isotropic material	Lengthening contractions	No
Sharafi and Blemker [46]	Rectus femoris and soleus	1 rabbit, 3D geometries from histological cross sections	Parallel fiber distribution in a single direction	Active hyperelastic, nearly incompressible, transversely isotropic material	Macroscopic shear	No
Ehret et al. [47]	Tibialis anterior	Ideal geometries	Loading-driven fiber direction	Active transversely isotropic material	Shortening and lengthening	Experimental stress response
Böl et al. [23]	Biceps brachii	1 healthy subject, 3D geometries from MRI data	Fusiform fiber orientation at a pennation angle	Active electromechanical material based on the transversely isotropic law (13 parameters)	Contraction	No
Paetsch et al. [48]	Ventral interior lateral	1 tobacco hornworm caterpillar Manduca sexta, ideal geometries	Parallel distribution to the longitudinal direction	Active transversely isotropic nonlinear hyperelastic material (20 parameters)	Uniaxial extension	No