Application of Leg, Vertical, and Joint Stiffness in Running Performance: A Literature Overview

Table 1

List of the studies on leg stiffness during running.

Authors	Year	Number of participants	Sport background	Motor skill
Ache-Dias et al. [128]	2018	18 ()	Recreational runners	Submaximal constant load running test on treadmill (6 min at 9 km/h)
Arampatzis et al. [62]	1999	13 runners	Not mentioned	Running at 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, and 6.5 m/s
Avogadro et al. [138]	2004	13 runners	Healthy trained runners	3 min running on treadmill at 12, 14, 16, and 18 km/h
Bitchell et al. [97]	2019	runners		Incremental running on treadmill
Brocherie et al. [81]	2015	8 males	International football players	RAST test ( sprint)
Cavagna et al. [63]	2005		Not mentioned	Running at different velocities (from 5.2 to 20.5 km/h)
Choukou et al. [106]	2012	8 males	Sprinters competing at the regional level	100 m sprint
Coleman et al. [141]	2012	19 males	Well-trained middle-distance runners	Running at different velocities (from 2.5 to 6.5 m/s)
Cronin and Rumpf [69]	2014	16 males	Young athletes	30 m sprint on treadmill
Dal Pupo et al. [107]	2017	21 males	Futsal players	10 m sprint
Dutto and Smith [76]	2002		Well-trained runners	Running on treadmill to exhaustion at a velocity corresponding to 80% of the
Farley and González [33]	1996	4 males	Experienced treadmill runners	Running on treadmill at 2.5 m/s (while using a range of stride frequencies from 26% below to 36% above the preferred stride frequency)
Ferris et al. [88]	1999	6 females	Healthy	17 m running at 3.0 m/s
Ferris et al. [87]	1998	5 humans	Not mentioned	Running at 5 m/s
Fourchet et al. [102]	2015	11 males	Highly trained middle-distance runners	Running on treadmill to exhaustion at a velocity corresponding to 95% of the
García-Pinillos et al. [103]	2020	22 males	Endurance runners	60 min running on treadmill
García-Pinillos et al. [66]	2019	22 males	Novice and elite endurance runners	Incremental running on treadmill at 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18 km/h
Gill et al. [155]	2020		Runners	32 m running at 3.3, 3.9, 4.8, and 5.6 m/s
Gindre et al. [83]	2016		Healthy and active	50 m running at 3.3, 4.2, and 5.0 m/s
Giovanelli et al. [95]	2016	18 males	Ultraendurance runners	“Supermaratona dell’Etna”
Girard et al. [150]	2015	13 males	Team and racket sport background	sprints on treadmill
Girard et al. [80]	2017	20 males	Field hockey players	running on treadmill at 115% of the
Girard et al. [57]	2017	14 males	Recreationally intermittent sports
Girard et al. [56]	2016	11 males	Physical education students practicing a field sport	100, 200, and 400 m sprint on treadmill
Girard et al. [79]	2011	16 males	Recreational team or racket sports athletes
Girard et al. [96]	2017	18 males	Physical education students	800 m running
Girard et al. [91]	2010	12 triathletes	Highly and well-trained triathletes	5000 m running at self-selected velocity
Girard et al. [93]	2013	12 males	National level triathletes	5000 m running at self-selected velocity
Girard et al. [78]	2011	13 males	Young soccer players	sprints
Günther and Blickhan [122]	2002		Sports students and active sportsmen	Running at convenience velocity (from 3.7 to 5.6 m/s)
He et al. [61]	1991	4 males	Healthy	Running on treadmill at 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, and 6.0 m/s
Heise and Martin [75]	1998	16 males	Recreational runners	15 m running at 3.35 m/s
Hobara et al. [64]	2010	8 males	Well-trained sprinters and runners	400 m sprint
Hunter and Smith [105]	2007		Recreational runners	1 h running on treadmill at constant velocity
Joseph et al. [148]	2013	20 males	Various sports	10 m running at 3.35 m/s
Joseph et al. [121]	2014	20 males	Various sports	10 m running at 3.35 m/s
Hayes and Caplan [101]	2014	6 runners	Subelite middle-distance runners	Running on treadmill to exhaustion at velocity corresponding to
Li et al. [104]	2021	28 males	Collegiate distance runners	Running at 12, 14, and 16 km/h
Liew et al. [143]	2017	20 females	Recreational runners	20 m running at 5.0 m/s
Liew et al. [110]	2021		Healthy	45° cut at 4 m/s approach velocity
Lorimer et al. [53]	2018	12 males	Well-trained triathletes	2 min running on treadmill at 3.0, 3.3, 3.7, and 4.2 m/s
Lum et al. [129]	2019	14 males	Moderately trained endurance runners	10 km running on treadmill at 10 km/h and 12 km/h
Lussiana and Gindre [84]	2016	31 runners	Well-trained runners	15 min running at self-selected velocity
Lussiana et al. [85]	2017	58 males	Recreational runners	5 min running on treadmill at 12 km/h
Meur et al. [94]	2013		Elite triathletes	Performance of each participant was examined during the running section of the World Triathlon Grand Final
Meyers et al. [67]	2019	375 boys	Biweekly physical education classes	30 m sprint
Meyers et al. [71]	2016	189 boys	Biweekly physical education classes	30 m sprint
Meyers et al. [72]	2017	344 boys	Biweekly physical education classes	35 m sprint
Monte et al. [65]	2017		Elite and intermediate sprinters	80 m sprint with different stride frequencies (preferred and +15%, +30%, −15%, and −30% of the self-selected)
Monte et al. [68]	2020	32 males	Endurance runners	6 min running on treadmill at theoretical half-marathon running velocity
Morin et al. [139]	2005	males
Morin et al. [55]	2006	8 males	Physical education students	100 m sprint
Morin et al. [92]	2012	11 males	Physically active physical education students	Running on treadmill at 10 and 20 km/h
Nagahara and Zushi [127]	2017	9 males	Sprinter, 2 jumpers, 5 pole vaulters, and a decathlete	60 m sprint
Pappas et al. [147]	2014	22 males	Healthy physical education students	Running on treadmill at 4.44 m/s
Paradisis et al. [58]	2019	50 males	Subelite sprinters	35 m sprint
Powell et al. [168]	2017	20 females	Recreational athletes	Running at self-selected velocity
Rabita et al. [100]	2013	12 males	Runners	Running to exhaustion at constant velocity corresponding to
Rabita et al. [99]	2011		Elite triathletes	Running to exhaustion at a velocity corresponding to 95% of the
Rogers et al. [86]	2017	11 males	Highly trained middle-distance runners	50 m sprint
Rumpf et al. [73]	2015	32 children	Physically active and trained a minimum of two times per week	30 m sprint on treadmill
Rumpf et al. [70]	2013	74 boys	Physically active	30 sprint on treadmill
Shih et al. [114]	2019		Recreational runners	14 m running at 3.4 m/s
Sinclair et al. [145]	2015		Recreational runners	Running at 4.0 m/s
Stafilidis and Arampatzis [90]	2007	10 male	Experienced sprinters	60 m sprint
Weir et al. [98]	2020	13 males	Recreational runners	Prolonged running on treadmill ()
Williams III et al. [166]	2004		Healthy	25 m running at 3.35 m/s
Yin et al. [109]	2020	78 males	Healthy amateur runners	15 m running at 3.3 m/s