Prediction of Highway Tunnel Pavement Performance Based on Digital Twin and Multiple Time Series Stacking

Table 4

Prediction error considering time series features.

Algorithm name	Prediction error
	SVR	0.1527	0.0435	5.51%
Ridge	0.1526	0.0429	5.66%
XGBoost	0.1603	0.0491	5.75%
ANN	0.1533	0.0439	5.64%
RF	0.1689	0.0514	6.52%
Stacking	0.1314	0.0386	5.10%