The Role of Organelle Stresses in Diabetes Mellitus and Obesity: Implication for Treatment

Figure 1

(a) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response and unfolded protein response (UPR) are linked to insulin resistance, inflammation lipogenesis, and pancreatic beta-cell survival. (b) Defective mitochondrial function leads to inflammation, insulin resistance, and reduced insulin secretion. (c) Autophagy regulates hepatic lipogenesis, adipocyte physiology, pancreatic beta-cell function, and appetite control. UPR: unfolded protein response; ROS: reactive oxygen species; NAD: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NADH: reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; ADP: adenosine diphosphate; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; TCA: tricarboxylic acid cycle; : ATP-dependent potassium channel; UQ: ubiquinol; FGF21: fibroblast growth factor-21; AgRP: agouti-related peptide; POMC: proopiomelanocortin.

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