UV Index for Public Health Awareness Based on OMI/NASA Satellite Data at King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia

Addas, Abdullah; Ragab, Mahmoud; Maghrabi, Ahmad; Abo-Dahab, S. M.; El-Nobi, Eman F.

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/2835393

Advances in Mathematical Physics

On this page

Abstract Introduction Methods Results and Discussion Conclusions Data Availability Consent Conflicts of Interest Authors’ Contributions Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Special Issue

Geometry of Warped Product Manifolds: Theory and Applications

View this Special Issue

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2021 | Article ID 2835393 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/2835393

UV Index for Public Health Awareness Based on OMI/NASA Satellite Data at King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia

Abdullah Addas,¹Mahmoud Ragab,^2,3,4Ahmad Maghrabi,¹S. M. Abo-Dahab,^5,6and Eman F. El-Nobi⁷

Academic Editor: Meraj Ali Khan

Received20 Jun 2021

Accepted17 Jul 2021

Published31 Jul 2021

Abstract

Exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV) is essential for good health and formation of vitamin D while overexposure poses a risk to public health. Therefore, it is important to provide information to the public about the level of solar UV radiation. The ultraviolet index (UVI) is used to help avoid the negative effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on humans and to optimize individual exposure. There is limited ground measurement of solar UV radiation, but satellite Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMIs) satellite products with a spatial resolution of can be used to create UV index climatology at local noon time. In this study, we utilize OMI satellite products collected over the campus of King Abdulaziz University (KAU) (21.5° North and 39.1° East), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, to estimate changes in exposure to UV over a period of 15 years (2004-2020). The results indicate a significantly increasing trend in UV index over this period. Between 2004 and 2020, daily “extreme” UV (, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO)) occurred on 46.60% of days. The frequency of low UVI () was only about 0.06%. These results imply dangerous exposure levels to solar UV radiation on the KAU campus and call for safety measures to increase awareness and decrease direct exposure; for example, by implementing the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) general guidelines.

1. Introduction

Most people love the sun and spend significant amounts of time outdoors, often in clothing that exposes their skin to direct ultraviolet (UV) radiation (UVR). Medical research has shown that some exposure to sunlight can be beneficial; for example, increasing the production of vitamin D [1–3]. However, overexposure to UVR can contribute to serious health problems, ranging from sunburn (erythema) and skin damage to skin cancer [4–8]. The effects of sunburn worsen with cumulative exposure, and a higher number of incidents of severe sunburn, especially during childhood, increase the risk of developing skin cancer [9–11]. UVR exposure also places eyes at risk of photokeratitis, photo conjunctivitis, and cataracts [12–17].

1.1. Skin Cancers

Skin cancers present the greatest risk to fair skinned people because they have less protective melanin than people with darker skin [18]. Keratinocyte carcinomas, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma are the most common [19]. The third type of skin cancer, melanoma, is less common than the other skin cancers, but it accounts for most skin cancer deaths [4, 20, 21]: 95% of such deaths worldwide [22]. It is concerning that, in fair skinned populations, the incidence of melanoma is rising more quickly than it is for most other types of cancer [23]. The number of cases is expected to continue to rise [24], due in part to increased recreational and intentional UVR exposure, particularly in younger individuals [25]. The trends in the incidence of keratinocyte cancers are difficult to establish because of unreliable data [26] .

1.2. Ocular Disease

Solar UVR causes various ocular diseases including eyelid malignancies and cortical cataracts [13]. UVR is linked to cataract induction [27], which is the most common cause of blindness globally [28, 29]. Cortical cataracts are more prevalent at lower geographical latitudes where UVR is abundant [30]. Studies have shown that even a single exposure of the cornea to UV light can lead to detectable changes [31]. While there are different risk factors associated with cataracts, sunlight is estimated to be the cause of 10–20% of cataracts [32, 33]. While there is increased awareness of the link between exposure to direct sun and skin cancer, fewer people are aware that the risks extend beyond skin cancer [34].

In response to increased awareness of the risks associated with exposure to direct UVR, the UV index (UVI) was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the German Federal Office for Radiation Protection (Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, BfS). The higher the UVI, the greater the risk of skin or eye damage, and the less time it takes for damage to occur.

The UVI is important in raising public awareness of the risks involved in high exposure to UVR and in alerting people to the need for protective measures. Encouraging people to reduce exposure can limit the harmful effects and related healthcare costs. The equation to derive the UVI is as follows [35–37]:

where λ is the wavelength in nm, is the irradiance in W/m², and is the erythemal weighting function, which is defined as

The UVI is derived from the erythemal irradiance, integrating UV irradiance at ground level with weighting determined by the Commission International de l’ Eclairage (CIE). The CIE weighting function is based on the susceptibility of the Caucasian skin to sunburn [38, 39].

Information is provided in terms of the UVI scale, which was adopted in 1994 [35] and revised in 2002 to improve its usefulness in raising public awareness [37]. In 2009, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) stated that UVR is carcinogenic to humans [40, 41]. The WHO promotes messages alerting the public to recommended prevention measures (such as the use of hats or sunscreen) for different UVI values [26].

Most commonly, the UVI is derived from modeling UV irradiance, while taking into account key atmospheric metrics (aerosol optical properties, cloud cover, and ozone levels). Predictive UVI models vary in complexity and accuracy, but all require good information on actual atmospheric parameters, which is often difficult to obtain [42–44] .

Heckman reviewed 20 years of research into awareness of the UVI and its impact and found that awareness varies from country to country, with low levels of comprehension and use of the UVI as a means of informing safe behaviors [45]. It is evident that more research is needed to determine best practices in increasing public awareness of the potential of the UVI to aid effective skin protection [46, 47] and improve public health.

It is especially important to protect the most vulnerable population groups, given that more than 90% of nonmelanoma skin cancers affect skin types I and II [48, 49]; the key messages associated with the UVI need to be focused on people who are at higher risk of sunburn [47, 50]. Children are especially sensitive to UVR and need special protection. Further, even though the occurrence of skin cancer is lower in dark skinned people, they are still susceptible to damage to the eyes and immune system [5, 7, 51, 52]. Messaging at the national and local levels is needed to focus on the needs of vulnerable subgroups of the population. Differences in climate and culture and perceptions of risks also need to be considered [37]. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has devised guidelines for using the UVI [53].

In this study, all sky conditions, UV index, climatology over the campus of King Abdulaziz University (KAU), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, (21.5° North and 39.1° East) based on OMI satellite data with high spatial resolution accuracy of and since there are only limited ground measurements, for the period from October 2004 to December 2020, was studied. In the last 15 years, the daily UVI studded to raise awareness among university students and staff of the UVI and its potential value. A description of the methods used is followed by the results and discussion and conclusions.

2. Methods

2.1. Questionnaire on the Awareness of the Effects of UVR

Established in 1967, King Abdulaziz University Campus (KAU) occupies an area of 2,224 acres (9 km²) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, (between 21°29N and 21°30N latitude and 39°14E and 39°16E longitude). KAU’s vision, mission, and goals include protecting the health of students and staff. Recognizing the significant damage and health risks resulting from exposure to direct solar radiation due to incautious behavior, the university aims to increase awareness of the damaging impact of UVR and address misconceptions. To support this effort, we developed a semistructured questionnaire which was distributed among all university staff and students, spanning all ages and educational groups.

The questionnaire was designed to measure awareness of UVR and its damaging impact and of mitigation measures that could be taken. Participants were asked to express their understanding based on a set of five statements, based on [37]: (i)Statement 1: fire burns are more dangerous than sunburn(ii)Statement 2: sunscreen only needs to be applied at resorts in summer(iii)Statement 3: damage from exposure to direct sun can occur on a day with moderate temperatures(iv)Statement 4: you cannot get sunstroke on a cloudy day(v)Statement 5: walking in the shade reduces damage from the sun rays

2.2. Ozone Monitoring Instruments

We also used data collected by the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on board the EOS Aura rocket (launched in 2004) [54]. OMIs are derived from NASA’s Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) and the European Space Agency’s Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME). An OMI can provide many more measures than TOMS and better ground resolution than GOME ( for OMI vs. for GOME) [55]. For more information about OMI instruments and products, refer to Data User’s Guide [56].

The Giovanni product by GES DISC is a web application with a simple, intuitive way of visualizing and analyzing earth science remote sensing data, especially from satellites. Giovanni includes data on atmospheric chemistry and temperatures and rainfall. Giovanni is available at [57] and also includes output from models for atmospheric, land surface, and oceanographic parameters.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Data Analysis

First, we analyzed the percentage of correct answers to the five statements. Table 1 shows the distribution of the agreement and disagreement with these statements.

The results show that the majority of participants (61.5%) answered at least one of the statements incorrectly compared to 38.5% who answered all statements correctly. The majority of participants who answered all the questions correctly were females who were 35 or older (26.5%). On the other hand, among males, the age group that showed the largest proportion of correct answers was age 30 and younger (11.8%).

When asked if they followed the weather forecast, 46.5% of all participants said they were interested only in knowing the forecast daily temperature, while 22.4% said they did not follow the weather forecast. On the other hand, 31.1% expressed an interest in knowing both the forecast temperature and the UVI. Furthermore, 10.2% of the participants said that they were unaware of the existence of the UVI. However, 60.8% of the participants expressed an interest in learning more about the index; 29% were already aware of the index and followed it.

When asked about protection measures, 22% of participants stated that they did not take any steps to protect themselves from UVR; although, the majority of participants (78%) stated that they did adopt measures, including the use of sunglasses and sunblock with a head cover (24.5%); 11.4% stated that they only used a head cover, 22.4% only used sunglasses, and 19.6% used both. Also, 72.7% of the participants did not have a mobile application or any other means of obtaining the UVI, while 20.8% expressed an interest in knowing about the index and its application, and 89.8% wished that the UVI was advertised in public places to raise awareness.

3.2. Time-Series Variation in the UVI

Analysis of the daily variation in the UVI at midday (local time) over the KAU campus suggests a slightly increasing trend (IncT) over time (indicated by IncT of UVI) (Figure 1) [58]. Variation in the UVI shows a clear annual waveform. Starting in the winter months (i.e., January), UVI increases until it reaches its maximum in the summer (i.e., June) and decreases again to a minimum in the fall (i.e., November). The highest UVI values were recorded on May 2, 2019, (13.25), and the lowest value was recorded on November 18, 2014 (1.38). According to the categories of UVI (Table 2), 46.60% of the days (4,650) had an “Extreme” UVI, 29.87% of the days had a “Very High” UVI, and 23.53% of the days had a “Low”, “Moderate,” or “High” UVI. Given the EPA guidelines in Table [53], extra care is needed outdoors for much of the year.

Figure 2 provides a histogram with normal distribution and shows that the average value was . Figure 3 shows the daily average variation in the UVI in KAU during the period studied. UVI typically has high values during spring and summer and low values during winter.

3.3. Monthly Variation in the UVI

Examination of the monthly variation in the UVI suggests a moderately increasing trend over time (indicated by IncT of UVI) (Figure 4). Figure 5 presents the monthly mean UVI on the campus of KAU during the study period, and Table 3 shows an analysis of the mean monthly UVI during the study period. Several points emerge as follows: (1)The monthly average values of the UVI are characterized by relatively high values in the spring and summer months (March to August) compared with the corresponding values in the winter and fall months (September to February)(2)The maximum average value of the UVI recorded was in May, and the minimum value was recorded in December, (3)The standard deviation of the monthly average values is high March (±0.7), October (±0.7), February (±0.6), and November (±0.5) compared to the summer months; this can be attributed to climatological and synoptical conditions during the spring and winter months

3.4. Seasonally Variation of UV Index

Analysis of seasonal variations in the UVI suggests a moderately increasing trend over time () (Figure 6). As illustrated in Figure 7, seasonal UVI trends in Winter (Dec.-Jan.-Feb.), Spring (Mar.-Apr.-May), Summer (Jun.-Jul.-Agu.), and Autumn (Sep.-Oct.-Nov), the UVI generally decreases in the winter (December and January) and increases in February. In the spring, which is characterized by weather fluctuations (i.e., rainfall and temperature) [59–61], there is a notable difference between the three months of March, April, and May, with May showing the highest values. In the summer, climatic conditions are more stable, and the UVI is almost constant for the whole season. In the fall, September has the highest UVI, as weather fluctuations begin, with further fluctuations in October and November, as can be seen clearly in standard deviation.

3.5. The Box-Whisker Plots for UV Index

Boxplot or box-whisker plots is a method for graphically depicting groups of numerical data through their quartiles. It has also lines extending from the boxes (whiskers) indicating variability outside the upper and lower quartiles The spacings between the different parts of the box indicate the degree of dispersion (spread) and skewness in the data and show outliers. In addition to the points themselves, they allow one to visually estimate the mean value. Seasonal values of UV index at midday (local time) over the KAU campus by box and whiskers diagrams were shown in Figure 8(a). Here, we notice a significant increasing trend from autumn to summer during spring and decreasing again to winter with low degree of dispersion in summer and high degree of dispersion in autumn. In Figure 8(b), it is clear to note that annual boxplot of UV index from year to another was approximately constant, the mean value ().

(a)

(b)

4. Conclusions

OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instruments) satellite products collected over the campus of King Abdulaziz University (KAU), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, could estimate changes in UV index over a period of 15 years (Oct.2004-Dec. 2020), since there are only limited ground measurements, until now, in order to optimize individual exposure to solar UV radiation, public health awareness, behavior in outdoor, and planning to sun safety by taken UV index (UVI) into account. UVI values at midday (local time) over the KAU campus suggest a slightly increasing trend (IncT) over time (indicated by an IncT of UVI). Variability of the UVI shows an annual waveform. Starting in the winter months, the UVI increases until it reaches its maximum in summer, decreasing again to a minimum in the fall. According to the categories of UVI, 46.60% of the days (4,650) showed “Extreme” UVI while 29.87% showed “Very High” UVI; 23.53% of the days were characterized as “Low”, “Moderate,” or “High” UVI. From these findings, in the KAU campus, we recommended that

-Future studies should examine the effects of different parameters (such as surface ozone, aerosol, albedo, and cloud) on the UVR reaching the Earth’s surface

-The UVI should be reported along with the weather forecast in newspapers, on TV, the radio, and on webpages in affected countries and in different languages

We hope that this study will open the way to greater public awareness in KAU and the Kingdom to encourage safe exposure to the sun by alerting people to the health implications.

Data Availability

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy reasons.

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Authors’ Contributions

AA, EE, and SA contributed to the conceptualization. AA, AM, MR, SA, and EE contributed to the methodology. AA, AM, MR, SA, and EE contributed to the formal analysis. AA, AM, MR, SA, and EE contributed to the investigation. AA and A.M. contributed to the resources. AA, AM, MR, SA, and EE contributed to the data curation. AA, EE, and SA performed the writing—original draft preparation. AA, AM, MR, SA, and EE performed the writing—review and editing. AA, AM, MR, SA, and EE performed the visualization. AA contributed to the supervision. AA contributed to the project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

This project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz University (KAU), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under grant No. (G: 435-137-1442). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with thanks DSR for technical and financial support.

References

W. J. Olds, Elucidating the links between UV radiation and vitamin D synthesis: using an in vitro model, Queensland University of Technology, 2010.
World Health Organization, Ultraviolet radiation: an authoritative scientific review of environmental and health effects of UV, with reference to global ozone layer depletion, published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection and the World Health Organization, 1994.
U. Radiation, “An authoritative scientific review in environmental and health effects of UV, with reference to global ozone layer depletion,” Environmental Health Criteria, 1994.
View at: Google Scholar
D. L. Narayanan, R. N. Saladi, and J. L. Fox, “Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer,” International Journal of Dermatology, vol. 49, no. 9, pp. 978–986, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. D'Orazio, S. Jarrett, A. Amaro-Ortiz, and T. Scott, “UV radiation and the skin,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 12222–12248, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Diepgen, M. Fartasch, H. Drexler, and J. Schmitt, “Occupational skin cancer induced by ultraviolet radiation and its prevention,” British Journal of Dermatology, vol. 167, pp. 76–84, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. J. Balk, the Council on Environmental Health, and Section on Dermatology, “Ultraviolet radiation: a hazard to children and adolescents,” Pediatrics, vol. 127, no. 3, pp. e791–e817, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Watson, D. M. Holman, and M. Maguire-Eisen, “Ultraviolet radiation exposure and its impact on skin cancer risk,” Seminars in Oncology Nursing, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 241–254, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Glanz, M. Saraiya, and H. Wechsler, “Guidelines for school programs to prevent skin cancer,” 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
A. C. Green, S. C. Wallingford, and P. McBride, “Childhood exposure to ultraviolet radiation and harmful skin effects: epidemiological evidence,” Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, vol. 107, no. 3, pp. 349–355, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. F. McKinlay and M. H. Repacholi, “International workshop on ultraviolet radiation exposure, measurement and protection,” 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
D. H. Sliney, “Geometrical assessment of ocular exposure to envirmmental UV radiation-implications for ophthalmic epidemiology,” Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 9, 6 supplement, pp. 22–32, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. C. Yam and A. K. Kwok, “Ultraviolet light and ocular diseases,” International Ophthalmology, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 383–400, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Izadi, N. Jonaidi-Jafari, M. Pourazizi, M. Alemzadeh-Ansari, and M. Hoseinpourfard, “Photokeratitis induced by ultraviolet radiation in travelers: a major health problem,” Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, vol. 64, no. 1, article 217051, pp. 40–46, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Modenese, L. Korpinen, and F. Gobba, “Solar radiation exposure and outdoor work: an underestimated occupational risk,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 15, no. 10, p. 2063, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Miligi, “Ultraviolet radiation exposure: some observations and considerations, focusing on some Italian experiences, on cancer risk, and primary prevention,” Environments, vol. 7, no. 2, p. 10, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Hamba, A. Gerbi, and S. Tesfaye, “Histopathological effects of ultraviolet radiation exposure on the ocular structures in animal studies -literature review,” Translational Research in Anatomy, vol. 22, article 100086, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Norval, P. Kellett, and C. Y. Wright, “The incidence and body site of skin cancers in the population groups of South Africa,” Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 262–265, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Lomas, J. Leonardi-Bee, and F. Bath-Hextall, “A systematic review of worldwide incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer,” British Journal of Dermatology, vol. 166, no. 5, pp. 1069–1080, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. P. Pfeifer and A. Besaratinia, “UV wavelength-dependent DNA damage and human non-melanoma and melanoma skin cancer,” Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 90–97, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Fahradyan, A. C. Howell, E. M. Wolfswinkel, M. Tsuha, P. Sheth, and A. Wong, “Updates on the management of non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC),” Healthcare (Basel), vol. 5, no. 4, p. 82, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Karimkhani, A. C. Green, T. Nijsten et al., “The global burden of melanoma: results from the global burden of disease study 2015,” British Journal of Dermatology, vol. 177, no. 1, pp. 134–140, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Erdei and S. M. Torres, “A new understanding in the epidemiology of melanoma,” Expert Review of Anticancer Therapy, vol. 10, no. 11, pp. 1811–1823, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. C. Whiteman, A. C. Green, and C. M. Olsen, “The growing burden of invasive melanoma: projections of incidence rates and numbers of new cases in six susceptible populations through 2031,” Journal of Investigative Dermatology, vol. 136, no. 6, pp. 1161–1171, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. M. Elwood and J. Jopson, “Melanoma and sun exposure: an overview of published studies,” International Journal of Cancer, vol. 73, no. 2, pp. 198–203, 1997.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Gies, E. van Deventer, A. C. Green, C. Sinclair, and R. Tinker, “Review of the global solar UV index 2015 workshop report,” Health Physics, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 84–90, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. A. McCarty and H. R. Taylor, “A review of the epidemiologic evidence linking ultraviolet radiation and cataracts,” Developments in Ophthalmology, vol. 35, pp. 21–31, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Resnikoff, D. Pascolini, D. Etya'Ale et al., “Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 82, no. 11, pp. 844–851, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
D. Pascolini and S. P. Mariotti, “Global estimates of visual impairment: 2010,” British Journal of Ophthalmology, vol. 96, no. 5, pp. 614–618, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Sasaki, Y. Kawakami, M. Ono et al., “Localization of cortical cataract in subjects of diverse races and latitude,” Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, vol. 44, no. 10, pp. 4210–4214, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. C. Delic, J. G. Lyons, N. Di Girolamo, and G. M. Halliday, “Damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation on the cornea,” Photochemistry and Photobiology, vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 920–929, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. A. McCarty, M. B. Nanjan, and H. R. Taylor, “Attributable risk estimates for cataract to prioritize medical and public health action,” Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, vol. 41, no. 12, pp. 3720–3725, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
R. Lucas, T. McMichael, W. Smith, B. K. Armstrong, A. Prüss-Üstün, and World Health Organization, Solar ultraviolet radiation: global burden of disease from solar ultraviolet radiation, World Health Organization, 2006.
NCCP, “Skin cancer: Stay safe in the sun to reduce your cancer risk National Cancer Control Programme (NCCP) cancer prevention factsheet,” 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
WMO, Report of the WMO meeting of experts on UV-B measurements, data quality and standardization of UV indices Les Diablerets, WMO, Switzerland, 1994.
CIE, Standard erythema dose, a review, International Commission on Illumination, Vienna, 1998.
WHO, “UV index a practical guide World Health Organization,” 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
A. McKinlay, “A reference action spectrum for ultraviolet erythema in human skin,” CIE journal, vol. 6, pp. 17–22, 1987.
View at: Google Scholar
A. F. McKinlay and B. L. Diffey, “A reference action spectrum for ultraviolet induced erythema in human skin,” Human Exposure to Ultraviolet Radiation: Risks and Regulations, 1987.
View at: Google Scholar
IARC, Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Radiation, France, 2012.
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection, “Guidelines on limits of exposure to ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths between 180 Nm And 400 Nm (incoherent optical radiation),” Health Physics, vol. 87, no. 2, pp. 171–186, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Vanicek, T. Frei, Z. Litynska, and A. Schmalwieser, UV-Index for the Public, Publication of the European Communities, Brussels, Belgium, 2000.
P. Koepke, A. Bais, D. Balis et al., “Comparison of models used for UV index calculations,” Photochemistry and Photobiology, vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 657–662, 1998.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. de Backer, P. Koepke, A. Bais et al., “Comparison of measured and modelled UV indices for the assessment of health risks,” Meteorological Applications: A journal of forecasting, practical applications, training techniques and modelling, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 267–277, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. J. Heckman, K. Liang, and M. Riley, “Awareness, understanding, use, and impact of the UV index: a systematic review of over two decades of international research,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 123, pp. 71–83, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Lehmann, M. Heinitz, W. Uter, A. B. Pfahlberg, and O. Gefeller, “The extent of public awareness, understanding and use of the global solar UV index as a worldwide health promotion instrument to improve sun protection: protocol for a systematic review,” BMJ Open, vol. 9, no. 7, article e028092, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Lehmann, A. B. Pfahlberg, H. Sandmann, W. Uter, and O. Gefeller, “Public health messages associated with low UV index values need reconsideration,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 16, no. 12, p. 2067, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. T. Mufti, “Pattern of cutaneous melanoma at King Abdul Aziz University Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,” Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, vol. 28, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
S. T. Mufti, “Pattern of skin cancer among Saudi Patients who attended King AbdulAziz University Hospital between Jan 2000 and Dec 2010,” Journal of the Saudi Society of Dermatology & Dermatologic Surgery, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 13–18, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Y. Wright, D. J. du Preez, D. A. Millar, and M. Norval, “The epidemiology of skin cancer and public health strategies for its prevention in southern Africa,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 17, no. 3, p. 1017, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. N. Saladi and A. N. Persaud, “The causes of skin cancer: a comprehensive review,” Drugs of Today, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 37–53, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Lucas, S. Yazar, A. Young et al., “Human health in relation to exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation under changing stratospheric ozone and climate,” Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 641–680, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
U. S. E. P. A. EPA, “UV index description,” https://www.epa.gov/enviro/uv-index-description/.
View at: Google Scholar
P. F. Levelt, J. Joiner, J. Tamminen et al., “The Ozone Monitoring Instrument: overview of 14 years in space,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 5699–5745, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. F. Levelt, E. Hilsenrath, G. W. Leppelmeier et al., “Science objectives of the ozone monitoring instrument,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 1199–1208, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Instrument, OOM, “Data user’s guide OMI-DUG-5.0, produced by OMI Team,” http://nasa.gov/repository/Mission/OMI/3.3_ScienceDataProductDocumentation/3.3.2_ProductRequirements_Designs/README.OMI_DUG.pdf.
View at: Google Scholar
Giovanni, “Giovanni the bridge between data and science v 4.34,” http://nasa.gov/giovanni/.
View at: Google Scholar
F. E.-N. Eman, Distribution of UV-Index in Some Upper Egypt Regions, South Valley Univerisity, 2012.
H. Hasanean and M. Almazroui, “Rainfall: features and variations over Saudi Arabia, a review,” Climate, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 578–626, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Khan and Y. Alghafari, “Temperature and precipitation fluctuation of Madinah-Al-Munawara, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1959-2011),” Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 402–414, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Khan and Y. Alghafari, “Temperature, precipitation and relative humidity fluctuation of Makkah Al Mukarramah, kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1985–2016),” Transactions on Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence, no. 6, p. 42, 2018.
View at: Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2021 Abdullah Addas et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

783

Downloads

627

Citations