Supramolecular Biopolymers for Tissue Engineering

Table 1

Engineered SBPs developed in the last 15 years arranged by applications on TE and regenerative medicine.

Application		Outcome	Biomolecule	Possible main interacting forces
Complex macro- and microstructures		In situ multilayer bioprinting of DNA hydrogel [186]	P-N	H-bonding
		Complex nanostructures (i.e., nanocircles) [187]	N	H-bonding, hydrophobic interactions
		Highly stable DNA fiber resistant to DNases [188]	N	H-bonding, electrostatic interactions
		DNA origami scaffold with lipid core [189]	N	H-bonding, hydrophobic interactions
		Vesicle forming DNA hydrogel [190]	N	Electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions
		Network scaffold from RNA [191]	N	H-bonding, π-π stacking
		Self-assembly peptides with fiber topology, fine-tuning capacities [192]	P	H-bonding, electrostatic interactions
		DNA hydrogel bricks [110]	N	H-bonding, electrostatic interactions
		DNA hydrogel modulated by internal stress interactions [193]	N	H-bonding, ionic bridges
Cellular scaffolds	Tissue microenvironment development	Peptide scaffold for gastrointestinal villi reconstruction [67]	P	π-π stacking, hydrophobic interactions
		Dentinogenic peptide hydrogel laden with dental pulp stem cells [194]	P	H-bonding, van der Waals and electrostatic interactions
		Osteogenic scaffold for the recapitulation of nucleus pulposus phenotype [195]	P	π-π stacking, hydrophobic interactions
		Osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells in peptide scaffold [64]	P	Electrostatic interactions
		Injectable alginate-peptide scaffold for osteogenic differentiation [196]	S-P	π-π stacking, hydrophobic interactions
		Peptide scaffold that promotes epithelial regeneration [197]	P	Hydrophobic interactions, H-bonding
		Scaffold for mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles release for tissue repair [62]	P	π-π stacking, hydrophobic interactions
		Peptide scaffold for oesophageal epithelial and fibroblast coculturing [63]	P	π-π stacking, hydrophobic interactions
	Bioactive	Peptide scaffold that promotes vascularization and innervation innately [198]	P	Hydrophobic interactions
		Peptide scaffold for proliferation and migration of human umbilical endothelial cells by localized and controlled release of H2S [60]	P	Electrostatic interactions
		3D peptide scaffold for neuron proliferation [199]	P	H-bonding, hydrophobic interactions
		Peptide-carbon nanotube complex that promotes natural cell behavior and affects cancer cell microenvironment [200]	P	Hydrophobic, electrostatic, van der Waals interactions
		Injectable peptide for oligodendrocyte encapsulation and proliferation [201]	P	Hydrophobic interactions, π-π stacking
		Injectable hydrogel with slow degradation that allows the regeneration of native ECM [184]	P-S	Electrostatic interactions
		DOX-releasing system that also promotes dendritic cell maturation [202]	P	H-bonding, electrostatic interactions
	Stem cell culturing	Injectable peptide scaffold for embryonic stem cell culture [203]	P	π-π stacking, hydrophobic interactions
Smart scaffolds	Stimuli responsive	pH-responsive DNA hydrogel [204]	N	Triple H-bonding
		pH-responsive cyclic DNA scaffold [205]	N	H-bonding
		pH-responsive alginate hydrogel functionalized with hyaluronan oligosaccharides [206]	S	H-bonding
		Glucose-responsive, insulin release system [207]	P	H-bond, hydrophobic interactions
		ATP-responsive DNA hydrogel [208]	N	H-bonding
		Enzyme-responsive, silica-coated with konjac oligosaccharide [209]	S	H-bonding, π-π stacking
		Nanotube-DNA hydrogel optothermally responsive [210]	N	H-bonding
		MicroRNA responsive, DNA hydrogel for cancer screening [211]	N	H-bonding
		Thermoresponsive beta-cyclodextrin-based hydrogel [212, 213]	S	H-bonding, hydrophobic interactions
		Light-induced release, DNA hydrogel [214]	N	H-bonding, π-π stacking
	Shape memory	Reversible, CMC-based driven by chemical and physical stimuli [215]	S	Donor-acceptor interactions
Delivery	Drug	Chitosan oligosaccharide drug delivery vehicle with enhanced membrane permeability [216]	S	Not detailed
		DNA nanosponges for drug delivery [217]	N	Electrostatic interactions
		DNA-PA hydrogel for controlled release [218]	N	Hydrophobic interaction, H-bonding
	Cell	Injectable peptide scaffold for cell delivery [219]	P	H-bonding, electrostatic interactions
	Enzyme	Water-insoluble peptide for enzyme protection [220]	P	H-bonding, π-π stacking
	Genetic material	Hydrogel for sustained RNA release [221]	N	H-bonding
		Chitosan-graft-(PEI-β-cyclodextrin) copolymers for DNA and siRNA delivery [222]	S	H-bonding, electrostatic interactions
		Cell-penetrating peptide for gene delivery [223]	P	Electrostatic interactions
		DNA hydrogel for nucleic acid delivery [224]	N	H-bonding, π-π stacking
Therapeutic	Wound regeneration	Adhesive DNA hydrogel with antimicrobial properties [61, 225]	N	H-bonding
		Hydrogel for accelerated healing [185]	P	Hydrophobic interactions
		Hydrogel with hyaluronan oligosaccharides for accelerated diabetic wound healing [206]	S	Not detailed
	Immobilization	Microsurgery assistance-hydrogel for the immobilization of ultrasmall vessels. [226]	P	π-π stacking
	Cancer therapy	Hexapod-like DNA hydrogel for photothermal immunotherapy [227]	N	Not detailed
	Immunotherapy	DNA hydrogel as a vaccine system by noncovalent binding [228]	N	Electrostatic interactions

N = nucleic acid-based material; S = oligosaccharide-based material; P = peptide-based material.