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| Active substance | Biological properties | Mechanisms of action |
|
| Vitamin E | Antioxidant | (i) Scavenger activity against hydroxyl radical and lipid peroxyl radical |
| (ii) Inhibition of respiratory/oxidative burst and relative release of ROS |
| Anti-inflammatory | (i) Inhibition of NF-kappa-B activation and proinflammatory cytokine expression |
| (ii) Inhibition of COX-2 activity |
| Antifibrotic | (i) Inhibition of TGF-beta-1 |
| (ii) Inhibition of fibroblast proliferation |
| (iii) Inhibition of PDGF activity |
| Antiproliferative | (i) Inhibition of protein kinase C activity |
| (ii) DNA repair activity |
| Antiplatelet | (i) Antiadhesive and antiaggregating activity |
|
| Carnitine | Antioxidant | (i) Scavenger activity against super oxide, hydrogen peroxide, and peroxynitrite |
| (ii) Suppresses iNOS protein expression and nitric oxide radical production |
| (iii) Increase in eNOS expression (counteracting the negative effects of the nitric oxide radical) |
| Anti-inflammatory | (i) Downregulation of C-reactive protein, IL-6, and TNF-α expression |
| (ii) Inhibition of NF-kappa-B activation and proinflammatory cytokine expression |
| (iii) Upregulation of PPARγ |
| Antifibrotic | (i) Inhibition of fibroblast proliferation |
| Anticalcific | (i) Inhibition of osteogenic differentiation of fibroblasts |
|
| Pentoxifylline | Antioxidant | (i) Inhibition of respiratory/oxidative burst and relative release of ROS |
| (ii) Hydroxyl radical scavenger |
| (iii) Inhibition of lipid oxidation |
| (iv) Downregulation of iNOS protein expression |
| Anti-inflammatory | (i) Inhibition of NF-kappa-B activation and proinflammatory cytokine expression |
| (ii) Inhibition of COX-2 expression |
| (iii) Inhibition of TNF-α expression |
| Antifibrotic | (i) Reduction of collagen deposition |
| (ii) Inhibition of fibroblast proliferation |
| (iii) Inhibition of myofibroblastic differentiation of fibroblasts |
| (iv) Inhibition of TGF-beta-1 and PAI-1 expression |
| (v) Stimulation of fibroblast apoptosis |
| (vi) Nonspecific PDE inhibitory activity |
| Antiplatelet | (i) Antiaggregating activity |
|
| Coenzyme Q10 | Antioxidant | (i) Inhibition of increased production of ROS by blocking mitochondrial membrane depolarization |
| (ii) Scavenger activity against hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen |
| (iii) Downregulation of iNOS protein expression |
| (iv) Inhibition of excess of nitric oxide production |
| (v) Inhibition of lipid peroxidation |
| (vi) Regeneration activity of antioxidants vitamin E and vitamin C |
| Anti-inflammatory | (i) Inhibition of NF-kappa-B expression |
| (ii) Downregulation of IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1 protein, and IL-1-beta expression |
| Antifibrotic | (i) Inhibition of TGF-beta-1 |
|
| Propolis | Antioxidant | (i) Inhibition of release of NADPH-oxidase and myeloperoxidase (quercetin) |
| (ii) Inhibition of xanthine oxidase activity responsible for superoxide anion production (chrysin, pinocembrin, pinobanksin, and apigenin) |
| (iii) Inhibition of respiratory/oxidative burst and relative release of ROS (quercetin, CAPE, and chrysin) |
| (iv) Scavenger activity against superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, peroxynitrite, and lipid peroxyl radicals (quercetin) |
| (v) Scavenger activity against superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, and hypochlorous acid (CAPE) |
| (vi) Inhibition of lipid peroxidation (galangin, CAPE, pinocembrin, and pinobanksin) |
| (vii) Regeneration activity of antioxidants vitamin E and vitamin C (galangin) |
| (viii) Downregulation of iNOS protein expression (galangin, quercetin, CAPE, chrysin, and pinocembrin) |
| Anti-inflammatory | (i) Inhibition of NF-kappa-B activation (galangin, quercetin, CAPE, chrysin, and apigenin) |
| (ii) Inhibition of IL-1-beta and TNF-α expression (galangin, quercetin, CAPE, chrysin, pinocembrin, and apigenin) |
| (iii) Inhibition of IL-6 expression (galangin, quercetin, CAPE, pinocembrin, and apigenin) |
| (iv) Inhibition of IL-8 expression (quercetin, apigenin) |
| (v) Inhibition of COX-2 (quercetin, CAPE, chrysin, pinocembrin, and apigenin) |
| (vi) Inhibition of lipoxygenase (quercetin) |
| (vii) Inhibition of neutrophil migration to the inflammatory site (apigenin) |
| Antifibrotic | (i) Downregulation of TGF-beta-1 expression (galangin, quercetin, CAPE, chrysin, pinocembrin, and apigenin) |
| (ii) Inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9 (both with elastase activity) expression (quercetin, galangin, and pinocembrin) |
| (iii) Inhibition of myofibroblastic differentiation of fibroblasts (CAPE, apigenin) |
| (iv) Capacity to reverse myofibroblasts into fibroblasts and reverse collagen formation (CAPE) |
| (v) Inhibition of PDGF activity (chrysin, apigenin) |
| (vi) Inhibition of PAI-1 and fibronectin expression (chrysin) |
| Antiplatelet | (i) Antiaggregating activity (apigenin) |
|
| Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) | Antioxidant | (i) Inhibition of release of NADPH-oxidase and myeloperoxidase (quercetin) |
| (ii) Inhibition of respiratory/oxidative burst and relative release of ROS (quercetin) |
| (iii) Scavenger activity against superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, peroxynitrite, and lipid peroxyl radicals (quercetin) |
| (iv) Scavenger activity against superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, and peroxynitrite (anthocyanins) |
| (v) Scavenger activity against nitrogen species/RNS (delphinidin) |
| (vi) Downregulation of iNOS protein expression (quercetin, cyanidin) |
| (vii) Increase in eNOS expression (delphinidin, cyanidin) |
| Anti-inflammatory | (i) Inhibition of NF-kappa-B activation (quercetin, anthocyanins) |
| (ii) Inhibition of IL-1-beta and TNF-α expression (quercetin, anthocyanins) |
| (iii) Inhibition of IL-6 expression (quercetin) |
| (iv) Inhibition of IL-8 expression (quercetin) |
| (v) Inhibition of COX-2 (quercetin, delphinidin, and cyanidin) |
| (vi) Inhibition of lipoxygenase (quercetin) |
| (vii) Downregulation of MCP-1 expression (anthocyanins) |
| Antifibrotic | (i) Downregulation of TGF-beta-1 expression (quercetin, anthocyanins) |
| (ii) Inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9 (both with elastase activity) expression (quercetin) |
| (iii) Inhibition of PDGF and FGB activity (catechins) |
| Antiproliferative | (i) Antiproliferative and proapoptotic activity (catechins) |
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