Experimental Trauma Models: An Update

Table 1

Available animal models simulating relevant traumatic injuries.

(a)

	Trauma hemorrhage
	Pressure controlled	Volume controlled
Mouse	(i) Inhalation anesthesia [17–20]	(i) Inhalation anesthesia [17–20]
	(ii) Catheterization with PE-10 tubing [17–22]	(ii) Catheterization with PE-10 tubing [17–22]
	(iii) BP 35 ± 5 mmHg for 30–90 min [20, 21, 23]	(iii) 0.025–0.05 mL/g body weight (35%–60%) [23–27]
	(iv) Volume resuscitation [17–22, 28]	(iv) Volume resuscitation [17–22, 28]
Rat	(i) Inhalation anesthesia [29–33]	(i) Inhalation anesthesia [29–33]
	(ii) Catheterization with PE-50 tubing [29, 34, 35]	(ii) Catheterization with PE-50 tubing [29, 34, 35]
	(iii) BP 35–40 mmHg for 90–120 min [29, 31, 33–35]	(iii) 20 mL/kg body weight (45%) [30, 36, 37]
	(iv) Volume resuscitation [33–35]	(iv) Volume resuscitation [33–35]
Pig	(i) Complex anesthesia [4, 38–45]	(i) Complex anesthesia [4, 38–45]
	(ii) Orotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation [41, 42, 44, 46]	(ii) Orotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation [41, 42, 44, 46]
	(iii) Complex catheterization [38–41, 43–45]	(iii) Complex catheterization [38–41, 43–45]
	(iv) BP 30–40 mmHg for 45–60 min [39, 40, 42, 47]	(iv) 25–35 mL/kg body weight (40%) [43, 45, 48]
	(v) Volume resuscitation to BP 60–65 mmHg [49–51]	(v) Volume resuscitation to BP 60–65 mmHg [49–51]

(b)

	Traumatic brain injury
	LFP	CCI	Weight drop
Mouse	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia
	(ii) 2.0 diameter craniotomy [52]	(ii) 3–5 mm craniotomy, dura intact [53–56]	(ii) Impact on exposed skull or intact dura [57]
	(iii) Installation of a fluid percussion device [52, 58]	(iii) Installation of a pneumatically driven impactor (3 mm impounder)	(iii) 250 g metal rod dropped from 2-3 cm [59–61]:
	(iv) Impact on intact dura by a brief fluid bolus [60, 62, 63]	(iv) Velocity 5-6 m/sec; depth of 0.5–1 mm [53–56]	(a) risk of skull fractures >3 cm [60]
	(v) Injury magnitude: 3.6 atm [52]		(b) inadequate trauma <2 cm [60]
Rat	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia
	(ii) Craniotomy (4 × 2 mm) [30, 64, 65]	(ii) Craniotomy (diameter 6–10 mm) [66–68]	(ii) Fixation of a steel disc [69–71]
	(iii) Installation of a luer-lock connector to intact dura [30, 64, 65]	(iii) Installation of a pneumatic cylinder [66–68]	(iii) 300–450 g weight drop from 1–1.8 m height (exposed skull) [69–71]
	(iv) Trauma induction with 2.4 bars [30, 64, 65]	(iv) Impact velocity 4–8 m/sec [66–68]	(iv) 21 g from 35 cm height (exposed dura) [72]
Pig	(i) Complex anesthesia	(i) Complex anesthesia	Commonly not performed
	(ii) Complex craniotomy [73–75]	(ii) Complex craniotomy [73–75]
	(iii) Additional ICP monitoring [73–75]	(iii) Additional ICP monitoring [73–75]
	(iv) Trauma induction with 3–8 bars [73, 75]	(iv) Injury induction on intact dura:
		(a) velocity of 3.5 m/sec [76, 77]
		(b) dwell time 400 ms [76, 77]

(c)

	Long bone fracture models
	Open femoral fracture	Closed femoral fracture	Tibial fracture
Mouse	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia
	(ii) Lateral exposure of femoral bone [78, 79]	(ii) Initial stabilization:	(ii) Less frequently performed [80]
	(iii) Fracture performance by osteotomy [78, 81]	(a) intramedullary pin [80, 82]	(iii) Fracture placement distal to keep fibula intact [80, 83, 84]
	(iv) Stabilization by extramedullary fixation:	(b) intramedullary screw [80, 82]
	(a) locking plate [80, 85]	(c) locking nail [86]
	(b) pin clip device [80, 81]	(iii) Closed fracture by 3-point bending system [26, 80, 82, 87, 88]
	(c) external fixator [80, 89, 90]
Rat	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia
	(ii) Lateral exposure of femoral bone [91, 92]	(ii) Initial stabilization:	(ii) Closed fracture model [93, 94]:
	(iii) Medial exposure of femoral bone [91, 92]	(a) intramedullary steel pin [95–97]	(a) 3-point bending system
	(iv) Fracture performance by osteotomy [98, 99]	(b) intramedullary K-wire [95–97]	(b) 300 g weight from 20 cm height
	(v) Fracture stabilization:	(iii) Closed fracture by blunt guillotine:	(iii) Open fracture model [100, 101]:
	(a) intramedullary pin or K-wire [95, 96, 102–104]	(a) 500–650 g steel weight [87, 97, 102, 105]	(a) lateral exposure of tibia
	(b) combination of K-wire and 2 screws [99]	(b) 14 cm drop height [87, 97, 102, 105]	(b) fracture performance by osteotomy
	(c) plate osteosynthesis [106, 107]		(iv) Fracture stabilization:
	(d) external fixator [91, 108, 109]		(a) K-wire or modified needle [93, 101]
			(b) plate fixation [100, 110]
			(c) external fixator [111]
Pig	(i) Complex anesthesia	Not performed in trauma models	Not performed in trauma models
	(ii) Fracture is performed by captive bolt gun or osteotomy [112–115]
	(iii) Fracture remains commonly unstabilized [112–115]
	(iv) Intramedullary nailing is possible [116]