Candida Infections, Causes, Targets, and Resistance Mechanisms: Traditional and Alternative Antifungal Agents

Table 3

Some natural products, synthetic agents, and polymeric materials with reported antifungal activities.

General source	Specific source	Biological active molecules	Examples	References
Natural products	Plants	Essential oils; terpenoids; saponins; phenolic compounds; alkaloids; peptides; proteins	Steroidal saponins, sesquiterpenoids	[47, 48]
	Marine organisms	Anthracycline-related compounds; lipopeptides; pentacyclic compounds	Xestodecalactone B, seragikinone A	[49]
	Endophytic fungi	Secondary metabolites; peptides; pyrones	cryptocandin, pestalopyrone	[50]
	Microorganisms of terrestrial environment	Lipopeptides; terpenoids	Echinocandins, enfumafungin	[50, 51]
Synthetic agents	Organically synthesized or derived compounds; (not polymeric materials)	Compounds based on N,N-dimethylbiguanide complexes	Me (N,N-dimethylbiguanide)2(CH3COO)2·nH2O where Me: Mn, Ni, Cu, and Zn	[52, 53]
		Derived compounds from traditional antifungal structures	Imidazole derivatives, amine-derived bis-azoles	[54, 55]
		Synthetic derived peptides	Lactoferrin-derived peptides	[56]
		Derived compounds from natural products	Micafungin sodium, anidulafungin, caspofungin acetate, pneumocandin, and enfumafungin derivatives	[57, 58]
Polymeric materials	Polymeric materials	Polymers with quaternary nitrogen atoms	Polymers containing aromatic or heterocyclic structures	[59]
			Cationic conjugated polyelectrolytes	[58]
			Polymers with quaternary nitrogen atoms within the main chain.	[60]
			Block copolymers containing quaternary ammonium salt	[61]
			Synthetic peptides, synthetic dendrimeric peptides	[62, 63]
		Antifungal peptides mimics	Arylamide and phenylene ethynylene backbone polymers	[64]
			Polynorbornene derivatives	[65]
			Polymethacrylate and polymethacrylamide platforms containing hydrophobic and cationic side chains	[66, 67]
		Polymers with superficial activity	Fluorine-containing polymers	[68]
		Polymers containing different contents of halogens	Chlorine-containing phenyl methacrylate polymers	[69, 70]
			Polymeric N-halamines	[71]
		Chelates	Polymer-copper(II)-bipyridyl complex	[72]
			N-vinylimidazole copolymerized with phenacyl methacrylate	[73]
		Imidazole derivative polymers	2-[(5-methylisoxazol-3-yl)amino]-2-oxo-ethyl methacrylate and ethyl methacrylate	[71]
		Polymers loaded with antifungal compounds	Organic compounds	[74–76]
			Inorganic compounds	[77–79]