PPAR Activation Induces M1 Macrophage Polarization via cPLA₂-COX-2 Inhibition, Activating ROS Production against Leishmania mexicana

Figure 2

Cytokine determination in L. mexicana-infected macrophages. Levels of gene expression for each sample were normalized with β-actin RNA as internal control. Modulation was expressed relative to the untreated control using the 2^−ΔΔCT method. The 𝑥-axis intercepts the 𝑦-axis at “1” to show the increase and the decrease of each cytokine compared to nontreated infected macrophages. Relative expression level for each cytokine was calculated according to ΔΔC_T = (C_T test − C_T  β-actin) treated − (C_T test − C_T  β-actin) untreated formula [17]. Graph bars are mean ± SEM of three independent experiments, and statistical analysis was done comparing, for each time, treated versus nontreated macrophages; (*) 𝑃<0.05, (**) 𝑃<0.01, and (***) 𝑃<0.001.

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