Comparative Anatomy of the Hind Limb Vessels of the Bearded Capuchins (Sapajus libidinosus) with Apes, Baboons, and Cebus capucinus: With Comments on the Vessels' Role in Bipedalism

Table 1

Comparative anatomy of the hind limb arteries of bearded capuchin (this work), Cebus capucinus, baboons, apes, and Homo. O originates from E: emits.

	Bearded capuchins		Cebus		Baboons		Apes		Homo
	O	E	O	E	O	E	O	E	O	E
Obturator	External iliac	Medial circumflex femoral muscular branches	External iliac	—	Internal iliac	—	External iliac (Pan [24]), internal iliac (50% of Pan [23]), inferior epigastric (Gorilla, Pongo, and 50% of Pan [23])	—	Originates from femoral as variation [23], profunda femoris, internal iliac [26], and inferior epigastric from 20 to 30%	Iliac branches to fossa iliac and anastomoses with iliolumbar artery [26]
Medial circumflex femoral	Obturator artery or external iliac (one case observed)	Muscular branches, femur head branch, external pudenda	External iliac	Muscular branches	Obturator	—	External iliac (Hylobates [23] and Pan [24]), profunda femoris (50% of Pan [23]), femoral (Gorilla and Pongo [23])	—	Profunda femoris [23, 24, 26] femoral as variation [23, 26]	Muscular branches [26]
External pudenda	Medial circumflex femoral	—	—	—	Femoral	—	Femoral (Pan, unilaterally in Gorilla; [23])	—	Femoral [23, 26]	Anastomose with branches of internal pudenda artery [26]
Femoral	External iliac	Lateral circumflex femoral, inferior epigastric, profunda femoris, popliteal, saphenous, muscular branches	External iliac	Lateral circumflex femoral, profunda femoris, saphenous, popliteal	External iliac	Saphenous, popliteal, profunda femoris, suprema genicular	External iliac [23]	Medial circumflex femoral (Gorilla, Pongo, as a variation in Homo [23]), descendent genicular (Pan,  Pongo, Homo [23]), saphenous (all apes [23]), deep circumflex iliac (African apes; [23]), muscular branches [23], superficial circumflex iliac (great apes and Homo [23]), inferior epigastric (Pan, SW and all apes and Homo; [23]), external pudenda (Homo, Pan, Gorilla [23]), profunda femoris (all apes and Homo, except Gorilla, G), popliteal (all apes and Homo, G)	External; iliac [23, 26]	Medial circumflex femoral (as a variation), descendent genicular, muscular branches, superficial circumflex iliac, inferior epigastric, external pudenda, profunda femoris, popliteal [23, 26]
Superficial epigastric	Femoral	Superficial circumflex iliac	—	—	External iliac	—	Lateral circumflex femoral (Gorilla [23]), femoral (50% Pongo [23]), external iliac (Pan [23])	—	Femoral [23, 26]	—
Lateral circumflex femoral	Femoral	Muscular branches, descendent branch, femur head branch	Femoral	Ascendant, descendent, and transversal	Profunda femoris	Ramus descendens	Profunda femoris (all apes, except 50% Gorilla [23]), femoral (Gorilla to ascendant and descendent ramus [23])	Three branches in Pan and Asian apes, five branches in Pongo [23]	Femoral, external iliac, [24] profunda femoris [23, 24, 26]	Three branches [23, 26]
Superficial circumflex iliac	Inferior epigastric	Muscular branches	—	—	Inferior epigastric	—	Inferior epigastric (Pan [24]), femoral [23]	—	Inferior epigastric [24], femoral [23]	—
Profunda femoris	Femoral	Muscular branches, perforans (1 or 2)	Femoral	Three perforans branches	Femoral	Perforans	Femoral [23]	Muscular branches,; two perforans branches in 66.6% of Pongo, Pan,; and Hylobates, three perforans branches in Gorilla [23]	Femoral [23, 26]	Three perforans branches [23, 26], lateral and medial circumflex femoral arteries and muscular branches [26]
Popliteal	Femoral	Inferior genicular, common tibial, fibular	Femoral	Anterior tibial, fibular, superior genicular, rudimentar posterior tibial, media genicular	Femoral	Anterior and posterior tibial arteries	Femoral [23]	Anterior and posterior tibial arteries in all apes, except Pan that divides into a posterior tibial and a common branch for the anterior tibial; and fibular artery, superior genicular branches in all apes and inferior genicular branches in Pan and Hylobates [23]	Femoral [23, 26]	Anterior and posterior tibial arteries, superior genicular and inferior genicular branches, sural arteries [23, 26], middle genicular arteries, muscular branches, cutaneous branches [26]
Superior genicular	Saphenous	—	Popliteal	—	Popliteal	—	Popliteal [23]	—	Popliteal [23, 26]	—
Inferior genicular	Popliteal	—	—	—	Popliteal	—	Popliteal in Pan and Hylobates [23]	—	Popliteal [23, 26]	—
Anterior tibial	Common tibial	Muscular branches	Popliteal	—	Popliteal	—	Popliteal [23]	Muscular branches in all apes, except Pan are terminating as dorsal artery of the foot [23]	Popliteal [23, 24, 26]	Dorsal artery of the foot [23, 26], posterior tibial recurrent, anterior tibial recurrent, muscular branches, perforating branches, anterior medial malleolar, anterior lateral malleolar [26]
Posterior tibial	Common tibial	Muscular branches	Saphenous (from popliteal to rudimentaris posterior tibial)	Medial and lateral plantar	Popliteal	—	Popliteal [23, 24]	Calcaneal in great apes [23], medial, and lateral plantar [23, 24]	Popliteal [23, 24, 26]	Calcaneal, medial, and lateral plantar [23, 26], circumflex fibular, nutrient artery of the tibia, muscular branches, perforating branches, communicating branch, medial malleolar [26]
Fibular	Popliteal	Muscular branches, calcaneal	Popliteal	—	Popliteal	—	Posterior tibial in Gorilla and Hylobates, anterior tibial in Pongo, popliteal in Pan [23]	Lateral calcaneal, perforating branch in; all apes [23]	Posterior tibial [23, 24, 26]	Lateral calcaneal, perforating branch in all apes [23, 26], muscular branches, nutrient to fibula, perforating branches, communicating branch [26]
Saphenous	Femoral	Superior genicular, anterior and posterior branches	Femoral	Suprema genicular, anterior, and posterior branches	Femoral	Anterior and posterior branches	Femoral	Dorsalis pedis in great apes [23]	Descending genicular [23]	—
Anterior branch of saphenous	Saphenous	Medium branch, dorsalis pedis lateral, 3rd and 4th dorsal metatarsal	Saphenous	—	Saphenous	—	—	—	—	—
Posterior branch of saphenous	Saphenous	Medial plantar	Saphenous	Medial; and lateral plantar	Saphenous	Medial; and lateral plantar	—	—	—	—
Medium branch of; the anterior branch of saphenous (dorsalis pedis)	Anterior branch of saphenous	Dorsalis pedis medial, 1st dorsal metatarsal, 2nd dorsal metatarsal	Anterior branch of saphenous	1st dorsal metatarsal	Anterior branch of saphenous	Dorsal	Posterior tibial in Pan, saphenous in great apes [23]	—	Anterior tibial [23, 26]	Tarsal, arcuate, first dorsal metatarsal, cutaneous [26]
Medial plantar	Posterior branch of saphenous	To hallux, to second interosseous space, a communicating branch, lateral plantar	Posterior branch of saphenous	—	Posterior branch of saphenous	—	Posterior tibial in all apes [23]	From first to third interosseous spaces in Pan, from second to third ones in Pongo [23]	Posterior tibial [23]	Muscular branches, communicating branch [26]
Lateral plantar	Medial plantar		Posterior branch of saphenous	—	Posterior branch of saphenous	—	Posterior tibial in great apes [23]	Communicating branch [23]	Posterior tibial [23]	Muscular branch [26]