Potential Biomarkers and Their Applications for Rapid and Reliable Detection of Malaria

Table 2

Comparison of conventional detection techniques with advanced biosensors for malaria detection.

Types of test	Principle of the method	Instrument used	Sensitivity and specificity	Detection limit (parasites/μL)	Response time (min)	Instrument cost
Peripheral blood smears (PBS)	Morphological changes in the stages of parasite by thick and thin blood smears	Optical microscope	Depends on the instrument quality and the skill of the handler	5–10	30–60	Low
Quantitative buffy coat (QBC)	Blood staining by acridine orange	Epifluorescent microscope	Higher than PBS test	<15	>5	Moderate
RDTs	Detection based on antigen-antibody interactions and enzyme assay	Disposable dipsticks	Moderate at higher parasitemia (>100 parasite/μL)	50–100	10–15	low
PCR	Specific amplification of malaria DNA	Thermocycler	High	≥1	45–360 depending on the methods	High
Serological tests	Detection of malaria antigen or antiparasite antibodies in blood	Elisa, WB	Relatively high	30–60	Not mentioned	Moderate
LAMP	Detection of turbidity after amplifying DNA sequences	Turbidity meter	High	<60	>5	Moderate
Microarrays	Hybridization of DNA and quantification by fluorescent based detection	DNA chip	High	<60	Not mentioned	High
Flow cytometry	Detection of hemozoin	Flow cytometer	Variable sensitivity, high specificity	<1/sample	Poor correlation with parasitemia	High
Automated blood cell counters	Detection of hemozoin in activated monocyte	Hematology analyzers	Variable sensitivity and specificity	<1/sample	5–20	High
Mass spectrometry	Identification of heme	Laser desorption mass spectrometry	Undetermined	<1/sample	100 for whole blood	High
Amperometric immunosensor	Based on detecting target (HRP II) with the help of antibodies and modified electrodes that generate electricity on interaction	Cyclic voltammetry	Sensitivity is >95% and specificity; >90%	8 ng HRP II/mL	Not mentioned d	Moderate
Piezoelectric immunosensor	Based on antibody interactions with target HRP II on the quartz crystal	Cyclic voltammetry	Less sensitive than amperometric immunosensor	12 ng HRP II/mL	Not mentioned	Moderate
Magneto- immunosensor	Based on antibodies targeted to HRP II which; was successfully performed in a sandwich assay; on magnetic micro- and nanoparticles	Amperometric controller and Microplate reader for optical measurements	High sensitivity	0.36 ng HRP II/mL	Not mentioned	Moderate
Aptasensor	Based on detecting LDH	Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy	High sensitivity	108.5 fM for PvLDH and 120.1 fM for PfLDH	Not mentioned	Moderate