Oxidative Stress Relevance in the Pathogenesis of the Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systematic Review

Figure 3

Oxidants/antioxidants biomarkers and oxidative damage found in joints and blood of RA patients. The literature references pertaining to the indicated phenomena are provided in the scheme. Under oxidative stress conditions, the joints and blood of patients with RA show high concentrations of free radicals, mainly ROS (gray), which induce DNA, proteins, and lipids damage through different mechanisms. The nonenzymatic antioxidant response (blue square), in general, is diminished. The enzymatic activity (including enzymatic antioxidant response) shows variability. AE: arylesterase, ANTI-CAP: total antioxidant capacity, AOPP: advanced oxidation protein products, CAT: catalase, CT: 3-chlorotyrosine, DNA sb: DNA strand breaks, F2-I: F2-isoprostane, GPx: glutathione peroxidase, GR: glutathione reductase, GSH: reduced glutathione, H₂O₂: hydrogen peroxide, MAA: malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde, MDA: malondialdehyde, MN: micronucleus, MPO: myeloperoxidase, NADPH ox: reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, : superoxide anion, ^•OH: hydroxyl radical, PC: protein carbonyls, RA: Rheumatoid Arthritis, ROM: reactive oxygen metabolites, ROS: reactive oxygen species, RSNO: S-nitrosothiols, -SH: thiol group, SOD: superoxide dismutase, TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, VE: vitamin E, and βC: β-carotene. elevated levels, diminished levels, and significantly difference.