|
| Health effects | Location (year) | Study design | Number of cases | Number of BQ | Number of controls | Number (%) of BQ | aOR (95% CI) | Ref. |
|
| Oral cancer | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(1992-93) | Case-control study
() | 107
() | Never: 31 (29%)
Former: 5 (5%)
Current: 71 (66%) | 200
() | Never: 153 (77%)
Former: 5 (3%)
Current: 42 (21%) | BQ only:
28.2 (1.9–414.4
A + BQ + C:
122.8 (171.1–880.5 | [10] |
|
| Pharyngeal cancer | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(2000–03) | Case-control study
(): frequency matched males >= 40 yr | 148
() | Never: 33 (22%)
Former: 44 (30%)
Current: 71 (48%) | 255
() | Never: 216 (85%)
Former: 11 (4%)
Current: 28 (11%) | 7.7 (4.1–15.0 | |
|
| Oral leukoplakia | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(1994-95) | Case-control study
() | 125
() | Never: 19 (15%)
Former: 6 (5%)
Current: 100 (80%) | 500
() | Never: 258 (52%)
Former: 16 (3%)
Current: 226 (45%) | 22.3 (11.3–43.8 | [18] |
|
Oral submucous
fibrosis | | | 94
() | Never: 10 (11%)
Former: 5 (5%)
Current: 79 (84%) | 376
() | Never: 188 (50%)
Former: 14 (4%)
Current: 174 (46%) | 40.7 (16.0–103.7 | |
|
| Laryngeal cancer | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(2000–03) | Case-control study
(): frequency matched males >= 40 yr | 128
() | Never: 85 (66%)
Former: 15 (12%)
Current: 28 (22%) | 255 | | 1.3 (0.7–2.5) | [12] |
|
| Esophageal cancer | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(2005) | Case-control study
():
age, sex matched
males (>= 40 yr) | 165
() | Never: 72 (44%)
Former: 31 (19%)
Current: 62 (38%) | 255
() | Never: 216 (85%)
Former: 11 (4%)
Current: 28 (11%) | 1.7 (0.8–3.1)
Chewed with a piece of betel inflorescence:
4.2 (1.4–16.0
Swallowed BQ juice:
3.3 (1.3–9.3 | [21] |
|
Hepatocellular
carcinoma
(HCC) | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(1996-97) | Case-control study
(): matched by sex and age (±3 years) | 263
() | Never: 192 (73%)
Ever: 71 (27%) | 263
() | Never: 241 (92%)
Ever: 22 (8%) | 3.49 (1.74–6.96 | [22] |
|
| Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) | Taiwan
(2003) | Community-based cohort study | 11837 () | Never: 10,388 (88%)
Ever: 1449 (12%) | | | Compared with non-BQ chewers with HBsAg(−):
BQ chewers with HBsAg(−): 3.43 (1.19–9.89) | [41] |
|
| Cirrhosis | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(1996-97) | | 210
() | Never: 176 (84%) Ever: 34 (16%) | 210
() | Never: 199 (95%)
Ever: 11 (5%) | 3.56 (1.41–8.96 | [25] |
|
HCC
complicating cirrhosis | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(1996-97) | Case-control study
(): matched
by sex and age (±5 yr) | | | | | | [23] |
Cirrhosis
with HCC | | | 210
() | Never: 158 (75%)
Ever: 52 (25%) | 210
() | Never: 199 (95%)
Ever: 11 (5%) | Compared with controls:
5.81 (2.26–14.94 | |
Compared with cirrhosis alone:
1.69 (1.04–2.76 | |
|
| Adverse birth outcomes | East, Taiwan
(1998) | Case-control study
() | | Never: 10 (31%) Ever: 22 (69%) | | Never: 101 (51%) Ever: 96 (49%) | Low birth weight:
9.1 (1.6–51.8
Preterm birth:
3.4 (1.1–11.4 | [38] |
|
| Adverse pregnancy outcomes | Taiwan Bunum aborigine
(1994) | Cross-sectional study:
DOH-HR survey (age-matched) () | Adverse pregnancy: 62
()
Never-adverse pregnancy: 124 () | Never: 35 (56.4%)
Ever: 27 (43.6%) | | | Adverse pregnancy outcomes:
2.8 (1.2–6.8 | [42] |
|
Lower birth
weight (LBW) | South and East, Taiwan
(2003-04) | Cross-sectional study:
hospital-based () | 1264 | Never: 800 (63%)
Ever: 464 (37%) | | | LBW:
2.40 (1.21–4.80) | [37] |
|
Full-term
LBW | | | | | | | Full-term LBW:
3.67 (1.70–7.96) | |
|
Lower male
newborn rate | | | | | | | Male newborn:
0.62 (0.43–0.89) | |
|
| Asthma | Kaohsiung, Taiwan
(2013) | Case-control study () (age- and gender-matched community controls) | 600 | M:
Never: 192
(75%)
Ever: 63 (25%)
F:
Never: 340
(99%)
Ever: 5 (1%) | 1200 | M:
Never: 426
(84%)
Ever: 84 (16%)
F:
Never: 689
(99.9%)
Ever: 1 (0.1%) | Current chewers: 2.05 (1.12–3.76 | [40] |
|
| Metabolic syndrome | Taiwan
(1993–96) | Cross-sectional study:
nutrition and
health survey (NAHSIT) () | 1986
() | M:
Never: 634
(69%)
Ever: 286 (31%)
F:
Never: 984
(92%)
Ever: 82 (8%) | | | Metabolic syndrome: 1.31 (1.12–1.55 (BQ consumption 10 times/day)
Abdominal obesity: 1.42 (1.2–1.68
Hypertriacylglycerolemia:
1.33 (1.02–1.73
High blood pressure: 2.0 (1.4–3.0 (only in females) | [27] |
|
Metabolic
syndrome | Keelung, Taiwan
(2001–03) | Cross-sectional study:
Keelung community-based integrated screening (KCIS) program () | 19866
() | M:
Never: 16874
(85%)
Former: 1569
(8%)
Current: 1423
(7%) | | | Former:
Metabolic syndrome:
1.38 (1.19–1.61
Hyperglycemia:
1.07 (0.87–1.31)
Hypertriacylglycerolemia:
1.40 (1.23–1.61
Current:
Metabolic syndrome:
1.78 (1.53–2.08
Hyperglycemia:
1.24 (1.09–1.64
Hypertriacylglycerolemia:
1.90 (1.66–2.19 | [26] |
|
| Type 2 DM | Keelung, Taiwan
(1999–2001) | Cross-sectional study:
KCIS program () | 14816
() | M:
Never: 12696
(86%)
Ever: 2120 (14%) | | | Type 2 DM: 1.29 (1.04–1.60 | [28] |
|
| Obesity | Taiwan aborigines
(2003-04) | Cross-sectional study:
large-scale survey of substance use () | 7144
() | M:
Never: 1791
(47%)
Former: 167
(4%)
Current: 1866
(49%)
F:
Never: 2062
(62%)
Former: 84 (3%)
Current: 1174
(35%) | | | Obesity: 1.61 (1.40–1.85 | [43] |
|
| Heart disease | Taiwan
(1993–96) | Cross-sectional study:
nutrition and
health survey () (NAHSIT) | 1932
| M:
Never: 619
(69%)
Ever: 277 (31%)
F:
Never: 957
(92%)
Ever: 79 (8%) | | | Heart disease: 1.37 (1.1–1.6 (BQ consumption 10 times/day; only in females) | [32] |
|
Cardiovascular
disease (CVD)
All-cause
mortality | Taiwan
(1998-99) | Cross-sectional study:
MJ health screening centers () follow-up study | 56116
() | Never: 44565 (79%)
Former: 5568 (10%)
Current: 5983 (11%) | | | Former:
CVD: 1.56 (1.02–2.38)
All-cause mortality:
1.40 (1.17–1.68)
Current:
CVD: 2.02 (1.31, 3.13)
All-cause mortality:
1.40 (1.16, 1.70) | [30] |
|
Cardiovascular
disease (CVD) | Keelung, Taiwan
(1999–2004) | Cross-sectional study:
KCIS program () | 21906
() | Never: 17976 (82%)
Former: 1830 (8%)
Current: 2100 (10%) | | | Ever:
CVD: 1.24 (1.11–1.39 | [31] |
|
Cardiovascular
disease (CVD) | New Taipei,
(2013) | Cross-sectional study
(hospital-based) | 3177
() | M:
Never: 1761
(88%)
Ever: 241 (12%)
F:
Never: 1167
(99.3%)
Ever: 8 (0.7%) | | | Ever:
CVD risk factors:
Obesity:
1.43 (1.07–1.91)
Central obesity:
2.27 (1.53–3.37)
hs-CRP level:
1.38 (1.03–1.85) | [44] |
|
Obesity metabolic
syndrome
Type 2 diabetes
mellitus (DM)
Cardiovascular
disease (CVD)
All-cause
mortality | 17 Asia studies (5 cohort, and 12 case-control studies)
(1951–2013) | Meta-analysis
() | Obesity ()
metabolic syndrome ()
DM ()
CVD ()
All-cause mortality ()
Hypertension () | | | | Obesity:
1.47 (1.23–1.75
Metabolic syndrome:
1.51 (1.09–2.10
Type 2 DM:
1.47 (1.20–1.81
CVD:
1.2 (1.03–1.40
All-cause mortality:
1.21 (1.04–1.42
Hypertension:
1.45 (0.98–2.15) | [45] |
|
All causes
Cancers | Araihazar, Bangladesh
(2000–02) | Cohort study () | 19999
() | M:
Never: 5010
(61%)
Former: 288
(4%)
Current: 2850
(35%)
F:
Never: 7989
(67%)
Former: 177
(2%)
Current: 3685
(31%) | | | Ever chewers:
All causes:
1.26 (1.09–1.44
Cancers:
1.55 (1.09–2.22
Cardiovascular
disease:
1.16 (0.93–1.43) | [34] |
|
Total death
Cerebrovascular
deaths | Taiwan (1989–96) | Cohort study () | 6503
() | Never: 5602 (44%)
Former: 373 (19%)
Current: 528 (38%) | | | Total death:
1.19 (1.05–1.35)
Cerebrovascular deaths:
1.66 (1.19–2.30) | [35] |
|
| Schizophrenia | Palau
(1998) | Cross-sectional study:
hospital-based study () | 70
() | M:
Never: 26 (53%)
Ever: 23 (47%)
F:
Never: 4 (19%)
Ever: 17 (81%) | | | BQ chewing associated with milder symptom schizophrenia | [46] |
|
| Schizophrenia | Palau
(2002–04) | Cohort study: () | 65
() | Never: 16 (25%)
Ever: 49 (75%) | | | Male BQ chewers with high-consumption had significantly milder positive symptoms than BQ chewers with low-consumption | [47] |
|
