Intestinal Barrier Disturbances in Haemodialysis Patients: Mechanisms, Consequences, and Therapeutic Options

Table 1

Studies reporting circulating endotoxin in HD patients.

Study	Patients ()	Detection method	HD patients endotoxin concentrations (reported as mean ± SD or median-range)	Control group endotoxin concentrations	Timing of Blood Samples (before, during, or after HD)
[15]	50	LAL assay (gel clot)	76.30 ± 42.09 pg/mL	N/A	After HD
[9]	306	LAL assay (chromogenic)	2.31 ± 3.10 EU/mL	N/A	Not reported
[24]	50	LAL assay (chromogenic)	0.69 ± 0.30 EU/mL	0.04 ± 0.01 EU/ml (n = 15) [25].	Before HD and after HD
[16]	25	LAL assay (chromogenic)	0.302 ± 0.083 EU/mL and 0.209 ± 0.044 EU/mL (before and after 4 weeks of conversion to ultrapure dialysate)	N/A	Not reported
[26]	86	LAL assay (chromogenic)	0.66 ± 0.29 EU/mL and 0.08 ± 0.04 EU/mL (for conventional and nocturnal HD patients)	N/A	Before HD
[27]	10	LAL assay (chromogenic)	5.4 pg/dL before HD and 4.63 pg/dL after HD	N/A	Before HD and after HD
[8]	66	LAL assay (chromogenic)	0.64 EU/mL	~0.045 EU/ml (n = 14)	Not reported
[28]	59	LAL assay (chromogenic)	0.58 EU/mL (0.51–0.60) and 0.60 EU/mL (0.51–0.63) (before randomisation to sevelamer hydrochloride or calcium acetate)	N/A	Before HD
[12]	31	LAL assay (chromogenic)	40 ± 4.7 ng/L	7 ± 0.6 ng/L (n = 99)	Not reported
[29]	20	LAL assay (gel clot)	0.5 to 5.0 pg/mL in 18 samples	N/A	During febrile episodes on HD
[30]	211	LAL assay (chromogenic)	0.65 (0.43–1.16) EU/mL	N/A	Before HD
[31]	46	LAL assay (chromogenic)	0.23 ± 0.01 and 0.30 ± 0.01 (patients taking sevelamer and those not)	N/A	Before HD
[32]	58	LAL assay (turbidimetric kinetic)	0.17 ± 0.11, 0.28 ± 0.15, 0.45 ± 0.16 EU units	N/A	Before HD and after HD
[33]	17	Laser scattering photometry	0.23 EU/mL start of HD and 0.37 EU/mL end of HD	N/A	During HD
[13]	87	LAL assay (chromogenic)	Significant endotoxaemia detected in 6/87 HD patients (27.67 ± 23.56 pg/mL)	5.3 ± 1.1 pg/mL (n = 22)	During HD