Exosomes Modulate the Viral Replication and Host Immune Responses in HBV Infection

Figure 3

The dual effects of exosomes in HBV transmission and antiviral response. HBV induced exosomes containing viral proteins and RNAs can promote infection in three ways: (1) causing further infection by transmitting viral-related molecules; (2) inhibiting immune responses directly or indirectly; (3) influencing cytokine production and cytokine-mediated signaling pathways, while exosomes can play anti-infective roles by (1) inhibiting pathogen proliferation and infection directly; (2) delivering antiviral molecules among cells; and (3) increasing monocyte-macrophages and NK cells function. There must be a balance between infection and anti-infection processes, and exosomes as crucial messengers might modulate this balance in different ways as discussed in the present review.