Progress and Applications of Polyphosphate in Bone and Cartilage Regeneration

Wang, Yan; Li, Min; Li, Pei; Teng, Haijun; Fan, Dehong; Du, Wennan; Guo, Zhiliang

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5141204

BioMed Research International

On this page

Abstract Introduction Conflicts of Interest Authors’ Contributions References Copyright Related Articles

Review Article | Open Access

Volume 2019 | Article ID 5141204 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5141204

Progress and Applications of Polyphosphate in Bone and Cartilage Regeneration

Yan Wang,¹Min Li,²Pei Li,³Haijun Teng,¹Dehong Fan,¹Wennan Du,¹and Zhiliang Guo¹

Academic Editor: Magali Cucchiarini

Received12 Dec 2018

Revised29 Apr 2019

Accepted11 Jun 2019

Published27 Jun 2019

Abstract

Patients with bone and cartilage defects due to infection, tumors, and trauma are quite common. Repairing bone and cartilage defects is thus a major problem for clinicians. Autologous and artificial bone transplantations are associated with many challenges, such as limited materials and immune rejection. Bone and cartilage regeneration has become a popular research topic. Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is a widely occurring biopolymer with high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds that exists in organisms from bacteria to mammals. Much data indicate that polyP acts as a regulator of gene expression in bone and cartilage tissues and exerts morphogenetic effects on cells involved in bone and cartilage formation. Exposure of these cells to polyP leads to the increase of cytokines that promote the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells into osteoblasts, accelerates the osteoblast mineralization process, and inhibits the differentiation of osteoclast precursors to functionally active osteoclasts. PolyP-based materials have been widely reported in in vivo and in vitro studies. This paper reviews the current cellular mechanisms and material applications of polyP in bone and cartilage regeneration.

1. Introduction

Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is a linear polymer of tens to hundreds of phosphate residues linked together via high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds. It exists widely in organisms from bacteria to mammals [1]. PolyP originally appeared during volcanic eruptions and was considered to be one of the first energetic molecules on Earth [2]. Initial researches showed that some microorganisms accumulated polyP in dense heterochromatic granules, which can be stained red with toluidine blue and be easily seen with an optical microscope [3]. As early as 1960, Fleish studied the role of polyP in tissue mineralization [4]. However, polyP was dormant for much of the 20th century [5], until Kornberg et al. developed a number of currently available methods for the detection and quantification of polyP [6, 7] and found the enzyme (polyphosphate kinase) for polyP synthesis in bacteria [8]. This major discovery of the kinase enabled them to manipulate polyP synthesis in organisms for the first time. It turns out that polyP has many functions in bacteria, such as maintaining bacterial survival, promoting energy metabolism, regulating gene expression [9], supporting translation fidelity [10, 11], and enhancing motility [12] and virulence [13]. In mammals, polyP is abundant in bodily fluids (synovial fluid and blood) and various cells (platelets, monocytes, fibroblasts, and osteoblasts) [14, 15]. This polymer also has a wide range of biological activities. It can act as a protein chaperone [16], regulate channel activity [17, 18], transmit metabolic energy [19], promote cell proliferation and differentiation [20], and ensure the stable expression of genes involved in differential gene expression [21]. Important functions related to bone and cartilage regeneration [22], coagulation [23, 24], and inflammation [25] have also been studied intensively. In the process of bone regeneration, polyP can promote osteoblast differentiation and calcification [26], inhibit the bone resorption activity of osteoclasts [27], and play a significant role in the positive regulation of bone tissue regeneration. This paper reviews the cellular mechanisms and material applications of polyP in bone and cartilage regeneration.

2. Chemical Structure and Characteristics of PolyP

PolyP is a linear polymer of tens to hundreds orthophosphate residues linked via phosphoanhydride P-O-P bonds [28, 29]. Microorganisms can produce polyP via polyphosphate kinases at ambient temperature [9], while the chemical synthesis of this polymer requires temperature of several hundred degrees [22]. The chain length of polyP varies considerably depending on the tissue and the organism in which it is produced [23, 29–32]. The mammalian brain tissue contains polyP of about 800 phosphates in length [29], while polyP within platelet-dense granules is narrowly distributed at about 60–100 phosphates long [29, 33]. When the chain length is less than 100 phosphate units, it readily dissolves in water at millimolar concentrations [9]. PolyP is stable over a wide pH and temperature range [9]; the degradation of polyP at physiological conditions and the absence of enzymes is pretty slow [34]. PolyP can be hydrolyzed by exophosphatase (PPX) and endophosphatase (PPN), which sequentially splits the terminal phosphates of polyP chain or cleaves internal phosphoanhydride bonds [23, 29, 30]. At physiological pH, each internal phosphate unit of polyP carries a monovalent negative charge, making polyP a strongly anionic polymer [32]. Furthermore, polyP may be one of the biopolymers containing the highest density of negative charge [28]. As a multivalent anion, polyP must form ionic bonds with both inorganic (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Na⁺, etc.) and organic (basic amino acids, polyamines) cations [34]. It is a metal chelating agent [28].

3. PolyP and Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a kind of stem cells with a strong proliferative capacity and multidirectional differentiation potential. MSCs are mainly found in connective tissues and organ stroma and are most abundant in bone marrow tissues. They can differentiate into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, adipocytes, muscle cells, and other cells in a suitable in vivo or in vitro environment. Inorganic polyP has the ability to induce the differentiation of MSCs into osteoblasts [35].

Runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) is the most critical transcription factor regulating MSC differentiation and maturation into osteoblasts during bone development and is regulated by bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) [36]. Runx2 is expressed in MSCs and during the different stages of the osteoblast lineage [37] and leads to stage-dependent increases in the expression of genes encoding a range of functional and structural proteins, such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), collagen type I (COL-1), osteopontin (OPN), bone sialoprotein (BSP), osteocalcin (OC), and receptor activator of nuclear factor-κ B ligand (RANKL) [22]. Müller et al. [38] mixed a CaCl₂ solution with a sodium polyP (Na-polyP) solution to precipitate amorphous calcium polyphosphate microparticles (Ca-polyP-MPs) with a diameter of 280±120 nm. They found that Ca-polyP-MPs promoted the growth of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and upregulated the expression of the transcription factors Runx2 and Sox9 (markers of chondrocyte differentiation) in bone marrow cells from rat femur explants. These transcription factors are critical for osteogenesis and chondrogenesis [39].

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) plays a key role in bone regeneration [40]. Cell proliferation is one of the important steps in the early stage of bone formation. Kawazoe et al. [41] cultured human dental pulp cells (HDPCs) with pluripotent MSC characteristics and showed that polyP activated FGF-mediated cell signaling pathways by stabilizing FGF-2 and strengthening the affinity between FGF-2 and the receptors to promote the proliferation of HDPCs. PolyP not only physically and functionally stabilized FGF-2 but also prolonged the effect of FGF-2 on cells [41]. Microarray analysis showed that polyP induced the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1), OPN, OC, and osteoprotegerin (OPG) in HDPCs and human MSCs. Real-time PCR confirmed the induced expression of the MMP-1, OPN, and OC genes in both types of cells, and alizarin red S staining showed an enhanced degree of cell mineralization. Immunostaining analysis showed that polyP promoted the formation and maturation of COL-1. In short, polyP activates the FGF signaling pathway to induce the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of stem cells [41].

Ozeki et al. [42] confirmed that polyP can induce the expression of osteoblast markers, such as ALP, OC, OPN, BSP, and osterix (OSX), in human adipose tissue-derived MSCs (hAT-MSCs), increase ALP activity and calcification capacity, and induce matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) mRNA and protein expression. The transfection of an MMP-13 small interfering RNA (siRNA) effectively prevented the expression of the osteoblast markers ALP, OC, OPN, OSX, and BSP and blocked the osteogenic calcification of hAT-MSCs [42]. It was confirmed that polyP-induced MMP-13 can regulate the osteogenic differentiation of hAT-MSCs, which is essential for osteogenic differentiation. Similarly, the team found that matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP-3) has almost the same effect on rat dental pulp fibroblast-like cells (dental pulp stem cells). MMP-3 siRNA effectively inhibits the expression of osteogenic biomarkers, and polyP-induced MMP-3 regulates the differentiation of osteoblasts and rat dental pulp stem cells [43]. Further studies revealed that exogenous Wnt5 increased MMP-3 activity and accelerated the proliferation rate of dental pulp stem cells, while the transfection of a Wnt5α siRNA could inhibit polyP-induced MMP-3 expression and cell proliferation. This team demonstrated the sequential involvement of Wnt5 and MMP-3 in the polyP-induced proliferation of dental pulp stem cells, and MMP-3-mediated proliferation was mediated by the Wnt5 signaling cascade [44]. The Wnt family is highly conserved secretory glycoproteins that play important roles in regulating development, stem cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis [45].

Wang et al. [46] found that polyP not only promoted osteogenesis but also promoted chondrogenesis. However, this activity was shown only in MSCs cultured with osteogenesis induction or cartilage induction. PolyP can upregulate the expression of the BMP-2, ALP, and COL-1 genes in MSCs after osteogenic induction and upregulate the expression of the collagen type II (COL-2) gene in MSCs after chondrogenic induction. However, MSCs cultured without osteogenic induction could not be stained by alizarin red S after adding polyP, and no cell mineralization was observed [46].

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) promotes the expression of osteogenic markers (ALP and OC) [47] and chondrogenic markers (SOX9 and aggrecan) in MSCs [48, 49]. PRP also inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation by activating the Wnt pathway during bone remodeling [50]. PRP contributes to the repair and regeneration of bone tissue, but its specific mechanism has not yet been fully elucidated. This effect is currently attributed to transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and other growth factors [48]. However, the content of polyP in platelet-dense particles is very high [15]. Since polyP is the main component found in platelets, it is reasonable to propose that this inorganic polymer plays a significant role in platelet-induced regeneration [32].

4. PolyP and Osteoblasts or Osteoblast-Like Cells

Osteoblasts are derived from MSCs, and hydroxyapatite (HA)-producing osteoblasts ultimately differentiate to osteocytes [51]. PolyP promotes the differentiation and calcification of osteoblasts [41, 52]. Müller et al. [53] cultured human osteosarcoma cells (SaOS-2) in a medium containing polyP and CaCl₂ (2 mol: 1 mol). This polyP/Ca²⁺ complex could cause a strong increase in ALP activity and induce the steady-state gene expression of ALP (tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP)). However, this effect was not observed in medium supplemented with inorganic phosphate alone. Immunocytological techniques found a large amount of ALP on the cell membrane, and membrane-bound ALP was localized in the matrix vesicles and the cell membrane, where HA crystallites grow [54]. Initially, HA crystallites were formed in the vesicles close to the cell membrane and eventually were released to the extracellular space [53]. The matrix vesicles contain polyP, and they are the initial sites of bone mineral formation [55]. Dexamethasone (DEX), ascorbic acid (AA), and β-glycerophosphate (β-GP) are essential substances in traditional osteogenic induction media. Müller et al. [53] found that β-GP can be replaced by a polyP/Ca²⁺ complex or inorganic phosphate. Even at a low concentration (100 μM), the osteogenic induction effect of the polyP/Ca²⁺ complex was better than that of β-GP (10 mM), and the polyP/Ca²⁺ complex was superior to inorganic phosphate. This finding confirmed that it was not the organophosphate β-GP but the hydrolyzed inorganic phosphate (Pi) unit that served as a donor for HA formation. The authors reasonably hypothesized that polyP was hydrolyzed to Pi by the membrane-bound ALP outside the cell membrane and served as a substrate for HA crystallite formation. Omelon et al. [56] proposed a potential mechanism of mineralization regulation in which ALP cleaved polyP to Pi, making Pi available for HA formation. Bone cells biochemically control the production, placement, and activity of ALP and polyP to regulate HA mineralization. In an experiment, Müller et al. [53] found that the 100 μM polyP/Ca²⁺ complex increased intracellular Ca²⁺ levels, whereas this effect was not found in the presence of polyP or inorganic phosphate alone. The authors believed that the ALP hydrolysis of the polyP/Ca²⁺ complex resulted in the release of both Pi and Ca²⁺ [53]. In response to the increase in extracellular Ca²⁺ concentrations, the intracellular Ca²⁺ level in osteoblasts increased [22]. The more important role of Ca²⁺ released during hydrolysis is to provide a calcium source for the formation of HA [54]. Usui et al. [57] also demonstrated that polyP can upregulate the expression of the genes encoding OC, OSX, BSP, and TNAP in mouse embryonic osteoblast precursor cells (MC-3T3-E1), induce osteoblast differentiation and calcification, and provide a material source for mineralization. In in vitro studies of the femur, Müller also found that polyP enhanced the mineralization of bone marrow cells in femoral explants [38].

Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is mainly derived from mature osteoblasts and osteocytes [58]. It is a key regulator of mineral ion homeostasis [59] and plays an important role in inhibiting osteoblast mineralization [60]. Sun et al. [58] found that polyP can increase the phosphorylation of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR), fibroblast growth factor receptor substrate 2 (FRS2), and extracellular regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 (Erk1/2). They demonstrated that polyP can upregulate the expression of the FGF23 gene and protein by activating the FGFR pathway. These results indicated that polyP may be related to mineral ion metabolism and that the increased expression of FGF23 may be the result of negative feedback regulation that inhibited mineralization induced by polyP.

Lui et al. [26] considered that extracellular polyP promoted proliferation, increased migration rate, prevented apoptosis, and significantly upregulated the expression of interleukin-11 (IL-11) at levels of mRNA and protein in SaOS-2 cells. PolyP directly stimulated the rapid phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases (ERKs) via basic FGFR [26].

However, it has been found that β-GP and Pi can induce strong mineralization of SaOS-2 and MC-3T3 cells, while polyP, whether tested as units with a chain length of 17 or 42 phosphate units or as polyP or polyP/Ca²⁺ complexes, can induce cell mineralization [14]. Exogenous polyP did not enhance the deposition of mineral. Ariganello et al. [14] suggested that this process might involve cellular effects and physical interference rather than a lack of active ALP, and unless polyP can be processed, its mineral inhibitory capacity was dominant.

5. PolyP and Osteoclasts or Osteoclast-Like Cells

There are a large number of particles that contain polyP in osteoclasts [61]. Osteoclasts are derived from hematopoietic stem cells. Their main stages of differentiation include preosteoclasts and mature osteoclasts with bone resorption activity [22]. To scavenge and store the free orthophosphate released during the process of bone mineral resorption, osteoclasts can store high concentrations of orthophosphate in the mitochondrion by condensing orthophosphate ions into polyP [1].

The marker of terminally differentiated mature osteoclasts is tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) [22]. The bone resorption activity of osteoclasts is dependent on TRAP, which is encoded by mammalian Acp5 gene and translated into a 35 kDa monomeric enzyme [62]. Subsequently, this monomeric enzyme is hydrolyzed into 22 kDa N-terminal and 16 kDa C-terminal fragments, which are then disulfide-bonded to form an active heterodimeric enzyme [63]. During bone resorption, TRAP is released from the basolateral surface into the extracellular space and enters the resorption lacuna from the ruffled border [27]. TRAP can dephosphorylate many substrates, including OPN, BSP, casein (CAS), and mannose 6-phosphate (M6P), but the specificity of TRAP substrates is not high. TRAP also has polyphosphatase activity and can degrade polyP. In addition, short-chain polyP has better degradation efficiency than long-chain polyP [27]. Due to competitive inhibition of the enzyme, polyP inhibits the phosphatase activity of TRAP in osteoclasts and inhibits the bone resorption activity of osteoclasts. In addition, long-chain polyP (polyP300, 300 phosphate residues) can bind TRAP with a higher affinity than short-chain polyP (polyP15, 15 phosphate residues), and its inhibitory effect is significantly stronger than that of short-chain polyP. In contrast, osteoclasts can also degrade polyP, creating favorable conditions for bone resorption [27]. In terms of osteoclast differentiation, Harada [27] noted that polyP had no inhibitory effect. Conversely, long-chain polyP (polyP300) promoted osteoclast precursor division and enhanced the number of TRAP-positive (TRAP+) multinucleate cells.

(Pre)osteoclasts express the receptor activator of NF-κB (RANK) in the presence of dihydroxyvitamin D3. The interaction between RANKL produced by osteoblasts and its receptor RANK can induce (pre)osteoclasts differentiation [22, 64]. In addition, the osteoclasts become functionally active, and the degradation of HA occurs after RANKL binds to RANK. This process is essential for osteoclastogenesis and the activation of osteoclasts [22]. IκBα kinase is a key molecule mediating the activation of NF-κB during RANKL-induced (pre)osteoclast differentiation [65]. Immunoblotting studies revealed extensive phosphorylation of IκBα on osteoclast-like RAW 264.7 cells that had been incubated in the presence of RANKL but the absence of the polyP/Ca²⁺ complex. However, the addition of the polyP/Ca²⁺ complex strongly inhibited the phosphorylation of IκBα kinase, even at a low concentrations of 10-100 μM [66]. The phosphorylation of IκBα kinase is needed for NF-κB activation [65, 67]. It was concluded that the polyP/Ca²⁺ complex interfered with RANKL-mediated NF-κB activation at the IκBα kinase level and impaired the differentiation of preosteoclasts into functional osteoclasts [66]. In addition, the polyP/Ca²⁺ complex can reduce the number of TRAP+ cells at concentrations >10 μm [66], which is contrary to the viewpoint of Harada et al. [27].

The expression level of the cathepsin K gene is considered to be a reliable marker of osteoclast function. Müller et al. [38] found that Ca-polyP-MPs and Ca-polyP/zoledronic acid (Zol) hybrid microparticles (Ca-polyP-Zol-MPs) can downregulate the expression of cathepsin K in osteoclasts after 7 days of incubation. However, the MPs did not affect the expression of TRAP.

6. PolyP and Cartilage or Chondrocytes

Articular cartilage is a connective tissue that covers the surfaces of the synovial joints. Due to its avascular nature, it is difficult to repair itself after injury [68]. St-Pierre et al. [69] demonstrated that polyP increases the expressions of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and COL in a chain length- and concentration-dependent manner in both cell cultures and cartilage tissue cultured ex vivo. The effect of 1 mM polyP was superior to that of 0.1 mM polyP, 0.5 mM polyP, and the untreated control condition. Additionally, polyP with an average chain length of 45 phosphate units significantly increased GAG and COL contents compared to those of cultures exposed to 5 phosphate units, 75 phosphate units, and the untreated control condition. While the mechanism by which polyP promotes the deposition of cartilage matrix has not yet been determined, the authors proposed that polyP may act by stabilizing endogenous growth factors [69]. However, treatment of ex vivo-formed cartilage with polyP did not upregulate the expression of cartilage matrix genes aggrecan and COL-2. The authors thus suggested that polyP inhibited chondrocyte proliferation [69]. However, polyP has been shown to stimulate the proliferation of HDPCs and human fibroblasts through the FGF signaling pathway [41, 70]. This discrepancy might be due to cell-type-specific effects [69].

When cultured on Ca-polyP, a porous material, chondrocytes maintain a polygonal shape and show a ring-like distribution of actin filaments; in contrast, chondrocytes are flattened and exhibit actin filaments dispersed throughout the cytoplasm when cultured on polystyrene [71]. Ciolfi et al. [71] suggested that Ca-polyP may limit cell spreading by maintaining a ring-like actin distribution.

7. PolyP in Cell Metabolism

Glycolysis is the main pathway through which cells produce metabolic energy in the form of ATP during bone formation. Lactic acid is the end product of glycolysis under hypoxia, and its content reflects the metabolic level. Carbonic anhydrase (CA) catalyzes the reversible conversion of CO₂ to HC as an internal buffer to regulate and control pH [72]. Müller et al. [72] found that the activity of SaOS-2 cells and the production of lactic acid were significantly enhanced with increasing polyP concentrations (0 μg/ml to 30 μg/ml) under hypoxic culture conditions. The gene expressions of carbonic anhydrase IX (CA IX) and hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) were significantly upregulated at the mRNA level after 3 days of culture with 10 μg/ml polyP under hypoxic (8% oxygen tension) conditions. The transcriptional proteins (CA IX and HIF-1α) also increased after 5 days of culture with 10 μg/ml polyP under hypoxic conditions. Finally, the authors confirmed that even under hypoxic conditions, the calcification of SaOS-2 cells could reach an aerobic level after adding polyP, which is necessary for bone mineralization under physiological hypoxic conditions [72].

PolyP is an energy-rich linear polymer with tens to hundreds of phosphoric anhydride bonds. Cells can absorb polyP by endocytosis [73]. Müller et al. [74] found that SaOS-2 cells can produce a large amount of ATP in a polyP-rich environment. After osteogenic induction and incubation with polyP, the intracellular ATP level can be increased by 10-fold. The ATP can be strongly released into the extracellular space, resulting in an increase in extracellular ATP levels. It was confirmed that the energy released by the hydrolysis of high-energy phosphoric anhydride bonds can be utilized by cells as metabolic fuel to facilitate the formation of HA on the extracellular plasma membrane [74]. Further studies revealed that ALP and adenylate kinase (AK) were released into the extracellular space through the transport of matrix vesicles and translocated to the cytomembrane in response to polyP. The authors believed that the high-energy phosphoric anhydride bonds of polyP were hydrolyzed by ALP, releasing metabolic energy to form ADP, which was then used by AK to synthesize ATP, as ALP and AK are involved in the synthesis of extracellular ATP and ADP [75]. PolyP releases the Gibbs free energy through ALP-mediated enzymatic hydrolysis to form ATP both inside and outside the cell. Therefore, polyP can be considered an energy reservoir [38] and can be used as an alternate energy source for some organisms that are exposed to anoxic environments [1].

8. Application of PolyP Materials

8.1. Metal Cationic Polymers

As a multivalent anion, polyP must bind to the metal cations. This polymer can act on cells in two forms: soluble salt solutions (e.g., sodium polyphosphate, Na-polyP) and granular nanoparticles (e.g., Ca-polyP-MPs). Moreover, polyP can be used as a strong chelator of Ca²⁺ ions [9]. Wang et al. mixed Na-polyP with CaCl₂ (2 mol: 1 mol) to form a polyP/Ca²⁺ complex to compensate for the effect of the resulting chelation on Ca²⁺ ions after polyP was potentially hydrolyzed into monomeric phosphate or pyrophosphate by phosphatase in vitro [53, 66]. This chelating effect can reduce the concentration of free Ca²⁺ ions in culture and may even deplete the Ca²⁺ required for HA deposition [14]. It was found that this polyP/Ca²⁺ complex was more conducive to the mineralization of SaOS-2 cells and the expression of BMP-2 than Na-polyP [66].

Müller et al. dissolved 2.8 g of CaCl₂·2H₂O and 1 g of Na-polyP in 25 ml of distilled water and then added the CaCl₂ solution dropwise into the Na-polyP solution. The pH of the suspension was adjusted to 10. Finally, the solution was stirred, filtered, washed with ethanol, and dried, and Ca-polyP-MP was obtained [38, 72, 76]. Compared with Na-polyP, which is dissoluble at physiological pH, Ca-polyP becomes insoluble and gradually hardens with increasing concentrations and chain lengths, This is a prerequisite for a material used in bone tissue engineering [22]. At present, Ca-polyP is the most widely used polyP in bone regeneration research [38, 72, 74]. As a bioactive ceramic, its elemental composition is similar to that of inorganic matter in natural bone tissue. In addition, Ca-polyP has good bioactivity, biocompatibility, degradability, and mechanical properties [77].

It has been shown that strontium ions can stimulate osteoblast activity, promote bone formation, and inhibit bone resorption [78, 79]. Müller et al. [80] dissolved 1 g of Na-polyP in 50 ml of distilled water and dissolved 5.16 g of SrCl₂·6H₂O in 50 ml of ethanol. Then, they mixed Na-polyP solution and strontium solution, adjusting PH to 10. Finally the solution was precipitated, filtered, washed, and dried to obtain amorphous Sr-polyP-microparticles (Sr-polyP-MPs). The bone regeneration effect of Sr-polyP-MPs was studied in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that Sr-polyP was superior to Ca-polyP in promoting MSC growth/metabolic activity, inducing the mineralization of SaOS-2 cells, and enhancing the expression of the ALP and BMP-2 genes in vitro. Moreover, compared with Sr-polyP, Ca-polyP significantly upregulated the expression of osteocyte-specific sclerostin (a negative regulatory factor of the Wnt signaling pathway and an inhibitor of the differentiation and mineralization of bone cells) [80]. In an in vivo study, poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) particles containing polyP microspheres were implanted into critical-size calvarial defects of rats. The results showed that the osteogenic effect of Sr-polyP was also superior to that of Ca-polyP [80].

Wang et al. [81] prepared Gd-polyP by mixing Na-polyP with GdCl₃ at a molar ratio of 3:1. After incubating the SaOS-2 cells with Gd-polyP, they found that 5 mM Gd-polyP significantly promoted the mineralization of SaOS-2 cells, enhanced ALP activity, and upregulated the expression levels of the BMP-2 and COL-1 genes compared with the control groups, 5 mM Ca-polyP and 5 mM GdCl₃. Thus, Gd-polyP has good osteogenesis-induced morphogenesis activity [81].

8.2. PolyP Hybrid Composites

Li et al. [77] doped copper (Cu) into Ca-polyP and used the formed Ca-polyP/Cu hybrid scaffolds to conduct experiments on bone defect repair. These scaffolds that incorporated Cu showed improved mechanical strength, cytocompatibility, and proliferation activity of cells. However, the incorporated Cu failed to change the degradation velocity of the scaffold. After Cu was doped, the expression of HIF-1α, ALP, OC, and VEGF was significantly upregulated both in vitro and in vivo. The combination of the Ca-polyP/Cu hybrid composite and preconditioned BMSCs further enhanced new bone formation. In conclusion, doping Cu into Ca-polyP was a new strategy for improving the mechanical properties of Ca-polyP and promoting its osteogenesis and angiogenesis potential. Ma et al. [82] assessed the degradation, biocompatibility, and osteogenesis of the lithium (Li) doped Ca-polyP scaffolds. They found that the hybrid scaffolds had better biodegradability and compressive strength, and 2% Li-doped Ca-polyP was most beneficial to cell growth and attachment.

Qiu mixed [83] strontium into Ca-polyP. It was confirmed that the doped strontium did not change the structure of Ca-polyP. This hybrid polymer can promote the proliferation and growth of osteoblasts in vitro. In in vivo studies, compared with Ca-polyP scaffolds, this hybrid polymer scaffold can increase the expression of COL-1 and BMP and has similar degradability [84]. Osteogenesis is closely related to VEGF and bFGF. Liu et al. [85] cultured osteoblasts with Ca-polyP doped with different doses of strontium and found that the mRNA expression and protein levels of VEGF and bFGF in cultured osteoblasts increased in a dose-dependent manner until the optimal dose (8% mol) was reached. It has been shown that Sr-doped Ca-polyP can induce angiogenesis and can be used as a good biomaterial in the context of bone tissue engineering and bone repair [85]. Qin et al. [86] also confirmed that Ca-polyP scaffolds containing 1% mol of strontium were more favorable to the proliferation and growth of HDPCs than pure Ca-polyP and HA scaffolds. ELISA analysis revealed that the protein levels of VEGF and bFGF in HDPCs cultured on these scaffolds were significantly higher than those in HDPCs cultured on Ca-polyP and HA scaffolds. A 1% Sr-doped Ca-polyP scaffold may induce angiogenesis and have better cytocompatibility in HDPCs [86]. Gu et al. [87] further confirmed that porous Sr-doped Ca-polyP scaffolds could accelerate bone formation by stimulating human osteoblast-like cells (MG63) to secrete VEGF and bFGF in in vitro and in vivo studies. When combined with MSCs, these scaffolds could further accelerate the repair of rabbit segmental bony defects. The release of strontium ions may be the reason why this hybrid polymer has better osteogenic capacity than pure Ca-polyP [84]. Similarly, compared with Sr-doped Ca-polyP, the implantation of a combination of Sr-doped Ca-polyP and autologous bone marrow mononuclear cells can significantly enhance VEGF expression and promote osteogenesis, but the effect was not as good as that of morselized autogenous cancellous compact bone grafts [88].

There is a large amount of HA in the bones of vertebrates. Natural or synthetic HA is widely used as a scaffold material for bone tissue and other tissue engineering purposes due to its biocompatibility [89]. Müller et al. [89] added different concentrations of Na-polyP during the synthesis of HA. It was found that the crystallization of HA could be inhibited, and polyP/HA hybrid particles with a size of approximately 50 nm could be formed at higher concentrations of polyP (mass > 10%). Compared with HA, the polyP/HA hybrid particles, which had bioactivity similar to that of Ca-polyP nanoparticles, could enhance the metabolic activity of SaOS-2 cells and human MSCs and upregulate the gene expression of COL-1 and ALP, providing a better design and improved selection for bone tissue engineering materials. PolyP adsorbed on the surface of an HA plate can also enhance the calcification of the cultured osteoblasts [90]. Wang et al. [91] confirmed that the mixing of amorphous calcium carbonate particles with amorphous Ca-polyP particles can enhance the proliferation rate of human MSCs in in vitro studies. An in vivo model study of rat critical-size calvarial defects confirmed that the mixed particles of these two amorphous substances can accelerate the bone mineralization process and upregulate the expression of marker genes (compared to Ca-polyP particles alone). These results indicated that calcium carbonate particles can enhance the capacity of polyP to induce bone regeneration in vivo, which reveals a new strategy for the development of regenerative implants for the reconstruction of bone defects.

Dhivya et al. [20] studied the proliferation and differentiation of BMSCs on a bone tissue engineering scaffold composed of chitosan (CS), Ca-polyP, and pigeonite (Pg). They found that BMSCs had stronger proliferation activity on the CS/Ca-polyP/Pg scaffold than on the CS/Ca-polyP scaffold or in the blank control group. This tissue engineering scaffold promoted osteoblast differentiation at the cellular and molecular levels, enhanced calcium deposits, and increased osteogenic marker gene expression (Runx2, ALP, COL-1, and OC) and ALP activity. The authors implanted the scaffold into an in vivo model of rat 3 mm critical-sized tibial defects. The bone formation of the rats was significantly enhanced in scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX), and X-ray radiographs analyses after 8 weeks [20]. Luo et al. [92] developed a new Ca-polyP composite scaffold that contained Li and VEGF-loaded gelatin microspheres. MSCs were seeded on scaffolds in vitro. The results showed that this composite scaffold had better efforts of osteogenesis and angiogenesis. In a rabbit model of glucocorticoids-induced osteonecrosis of femoral head, radiographic, histological analysis and western blot analysis showed that this composite scaffold also had better efforts of osteogenesis and angiogenesis than blank control group, autologous bone group, and Li-Ca-polyP group [92].

Zol can promote apoptosis in cancer stem cells (CSCs) by upregulating proapoptotic genes and downregulating antiapoptotic genes [93]. This approach has the effect of inhibiting tumor bone metastasis [38, 94]. Müller et al. [38] found that the anionic drug Zol can be embedded in Ca-polyP-MPs by Ca²⁺ ion bonds to form diamond-shaped Ca-polyP-Zol-MPs. PolyP reversibly binds to drugs and participates in drug delivery systems to treat bone metastases. This hybrid particle not only exhibited the cytotoxicity of bisphosphonate, but also showed mineralization-inducing and morphogenetic activity of polyP, which was suitable for targeted application in bone tumors and their metastases. Wu et al. [95] conjugated polyP onto hyaluronic acid macromers, developing a novel bioactive hydrogel that can provide constant osteoconductive stimulation to MC-3T3-E1 cells; this hydrogel has a higher osteoconductive activity than the free-floating polyP, resulting in the upregulation of osteogenic marker genes and the enhancement of ALP activity. At pH 7.4, the Ca-polyP nanoparticles had a high zeta potential of -34 mV, which contributed to the stability but impaired the biocompatibility of the nanoparticles (radius 94 nm) suspensions [96]. After Müller et al. [96] exposed Ca-polyP nanoparticles to serum containing protein/peptides, the zeta potential could be reduced to near zero, and the particles quickly transitioned to a coacervate phase. The cultured MSCs could be embedded in the coacervate and had enhanced growth/proliferation activity.

In terms of 3D printing, Ca-polyP and poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) can be mixed to form 3D printing biomaterials. The printed hybrid scaffold has not only biomechanical properties but also morphogenetic activity, which can promote the growth and mineralization of SaOS-2 cells [97]. Wang et al. [46] found that polyP was a morphogenetically active additive for the bioinert alginate polymer. Alginate supplemented with polyP was a suitable material that enhanced the proliferation and differentiation of human MSCs. This biomaterial has potential application value in 3D tissue printing. This research team further found that the addition of the polyP/Ca²⁺ complex and agarose to the alginate/gelatin hydrogel caused an obvious enhancement in the hardness and calcification of the cells and could be used as biomaterial for 3D tissue printing, which opens up a new possibility for the application of 3D bioprinting in bone tissue engineering [98].

Müller et al. [99] made a bioinspired hydrogel material with morphogenetic activity and viscoelastic properties matching those of cartilage with Na-polyP, N,O-carboxymethyl chitosan, and alginate. This hydrogel material upregulated the expression of the genes encoding COL-2, ALP, and aggrecan in SaOS-2 cells and can be used to make 3D solid models of cartilage. In another study, Müller et al. [100] dissolved 1 g of hyaluronic acid, 1 g of Na-polyP, and 0.5 g of CaCO₃ in 10 ml of distilled water. Subsequently, 5 ml of distilled water containing 1.5 g of solid MgCl₂•6H₂O was added. As a result, the authors obtained a fluffy and microporous hyaluronic acid-Mg/Ca-polyP paste. This material can bind Ca²⁺ in the synovial fluid, upregulate the expression of the genes encoding ALP, COL-2α1, COL-3α1, and aggrecan in human chondrocytes, and settle chondrocytes and stimulate them to reach a higher proliferative state. This material can also be used as an artificial cartilage material with regenerative activity [100]. Wang et al. [76] added Mg²⁺ ions to a solution that contained hyaluronic acid and soluble Na-polyP and formed a three-component system (HA-Mg²⁺-Na-polyP) that was highly viscous with a paste-like consistency. This matrix material strongly promoted the adhesion of chondrocytes to the culture dishes, even in comparison to HA alone. Compared with those of the blank control, Na-polyP, and HA groups, the transcript levels of SOX9 and COL3A1 were significantly upregulated in chondrocytes during a 21-d incubation period with this material. When chondrocytes were cultured in synovial fluid containing polyP with about 80 phosphoric acid residues, the expression of COL3A1 gene was also significantly increased. However, this stimulation was eliminated after the synovial fluid was incubated with polyP-degrading ALP. These observations provided strong experimental evidence that polyP is a key regulator of the metabolic activity of chondrocytes.

Articular cartilage interfaces with bone through a zone of mineralized cartilage that mediates the mechanical force transfer from soft cartilage to hard bone to better resist interfacial shear forces [101]. To simulate such zonal organization, some researchers devised a biphasic construct consisting of chondrocytes from articular cartilage anchored to the surface of porous Ca-polyP [102–105]. After 8 weeks of incubation, the cartilage layer formed on the Ca-polyP surface and within the pores near the surface and was mechanically anchored to the Ca-polyP [103]. Thus, a mineralized cartilage zone was generated within the Ca-polyP-cartilage interface [104]. It was found that this biphasic construct formed has better interfacial shear strength and cartilage load-bearing capacity [102] and can enhance the mechanical integrity of the cartilage-bone interface [104]. Such biphasic constructs could successfully repair focal subchondral defects in sheep joints [103]. PolyP released from Ca-polyP inhibits the calcification of cartilage in a chain length- and concentration-dependent manner [104]. Depositing a calcium phosphate film on Ca-polyP by a sol-gel process can prevent the accumulation of polyP and the associated inhibition of mineralization [106]. Lee et al. [101] prepared an “osteochondral-like” implant with cartilage cells and hydroxyapatite-coated Ca-polyP to simulate this zonal organization. The production of a layer of mineralized cartilage at the interface could help this “osteochondral-like” implant to repair cartilage defects [101].

9. PolyP and Other Biomaterials

Biomimetics, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and mechanical properties should be considered in the design of scaffolds for bone tissue engineering [107]. There are several types of biomaterials currently in use or in development for bone tissue engineering. (1) Naturally derived biomaterials (collagen, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, alginate, and fibrin, etc.) are produced by living organisms. These biomaterials are inherently biocompatible, showing minimal adverse immunogenicity, and are readily available from natural resources [108, 109]. However, they usually lack the required mechanical strength [107]. (2) Synthetic biomaterials [polylactic acid (PLA), polyglycolic acid (PGA), and their copolymers poly(DL-lactic acid-co-glycolic acid, PLGA), poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL), etc.] can be large-scale produced, be designed to precise geometric forms, and show desired and predictable mechanical properties and biodegradability [107]. However, they are limited in their applicability to bone regeneration due to their low osteoinductive capacity [107] and higher incidence of inflammatory reactions [110]. (3) Ceramics [hydroxyapatite (HA), calcium sulfate (CS), calcium carbonate, dicalcium phosphate, octacalcium phosphate, etc.] consist of inorganic oxides and salts. In contrast, bioceramics have good osteoconductivity, high compressive strength, and good osseointegration [111, 112]. However, this material has low osteoinductive activity, high brittleness, weak shaping ability, and long degradation time [113]. PolyP is widespread and produced in organisms. It can also be synthesized by chemical methods and has properties of bioceramics. In a word, polyP has the advantages of the above three biomaterials in osteogenesis. It has been proved that the composites of polyP and other biomaterials had better mechanical properties and biological functions than polyP or other biomaterials alone [76, 89, 91].

10. Summary and Prospects

PolyP is a biopolymer that is found in almost all cells and tissues. Because of its morphogenetic activity and role as a metabolic fuel inside and outside of cells, the application of polyP has become a key topic in current research. In the field of new biomaterial research on bone and cartilage repair, polyP-based materials have broad application prospects [15]. However, the specific biological functions of polyP have not yet been fully elucidated in many fields, including bone and cartilage regeneration [27, 114]. The process and specific enzymatic mechanism by which polyP is synthesized and consumed during bone and cartilage regeneration require further study. In addition, how polyP is transported and redistributed in cells and organelles remains unknown. The detailed mechanism of each stage of bone regeneration requires further clarification. There is an urgent need to further explore how to optimize the use of polyP and its composites in bone and cartilage tissue engineering. In summary, this paper reviews the current cellular mechanisms and material applications of polyP in bone and cartilage regeneration. PolyP is expected to play an important role in bone and cartilage tissue engineering in the future.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Authors’ Contributions

Yan Wang, Min Li, and Pei Li contributed equally to this study.

References

S. J. Omelon and M. D. Grynpas, “Relationships between polyphosphate chemistry, biochemistry and apatite biomineralization,” Chemical Reviews, vol. 108, no. 11, pp. 4694–4715, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. R. Brown and A. Kornberg, “Inorganic polyphosphate in the origin and survival of species,” Proceedings of the National Acadamy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 46, pp. 16085–16087, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Widra, “Metachromatic granules of microorganisms,” Journal of Bacteriology, vol. 78, pp. 664–670, 1959.
View at: Google Scholar
H. Fleish and W. F. Neuman, “Mechanisms of calcification: role of collagen, polyphosphates, and phosphatase,” American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content, vol. 200, no. 6, pp. 1296–1300, 1961.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Xie and U. Jakob, “Inorganic polyphosphate, a multifunctional polyanionic protein scaffold,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 294, no. 6, pp. 2180–2190, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Ault-Riché, C. D. Fraley, C.-M. Tzeng, and A. Kornberg, “Novel assay reveals multiple pathways regulating stress-induced accumulations of inorganic polyphosphate in Escherichia coli,” Journal of Bacteriology, vol. 180, no. 7, pp. 1841–1847, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
N. N. Rao, S. Liu, and A. Kornberg, “Inorganic polyphosphate in Escherichia coli: the phosphate regulon and the stringent response,” Journal of Bacteriology, vol. 180, no. 8, pp. 2186–2193, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
K. Ahn and A. Kornberg, “Polyphosphate kinase from Escherichia coli. Purification and demonstration of a phosphoenzyme intermediate,” The Journal of biological chemistry, vol. 265, no. 20, pp. 11734–11739, 1990.
View at: Google Scholar
N. N. Rao, M. R. Gómez-García, and A. Kornberg, “Inorganic polyphosphate: essential for growth and survival,” Annual Review of Biochemistry, vol. 78, no. 1, pp. 605–647, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Itoh, Y. Kawazoe, and T. Shiba, “Enhancement of protein synthesis by an inorganic polyphosphate in an E. coli cell-free system,” Journal of Microbiological Methods, vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 241–249, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. McInerney, T. Mizutani, and T. Shiba, “Inorganic polyphosphate interacts with ribosomes and promotes translation fidelity in vitro and in vivo,” Molecular Microbiology, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 438–447, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. H. Rashid, N. N. Rao, and A. Kornberg, “Inorganic polyphosphate is required for motility of bacterial pathogens,” Journal of Bacteriology, vol. 182, no. 1, pp. 225–227, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. A. Varas, S. Riquelme-Barrios, C. Valenzuela et al., “Inorganic polyphosphate is essential for salmonella typhimurium virulence and survival in dictyostelium discoideum,” Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, vol. 8, no. 8, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. B. Ariganello, S. Omelon, F. Variola, R. M. Wazen, P. Moffatt, and A. Nanci, “Osteogenic cell cultures cannot utilize exogenous sources of synthetic polyphosphate for mineralization,” Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, vol. 115, no. 12, pp. 2089–2102, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Müller, E. Tolba, H. C. Schröder, and X. Wang, “Polyphosphate: a morphogenetically active implant material serving as metabolic fuel for bone regeneration,” Macromolecular Bioscience, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 1182–1197, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. J. Gray, W. Y. Wholey, N. O. Wagner et al., “Polyphosphate is a primordial chaperone,” Molecular Cell, vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 689–699, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. C. Stotz, L. O. Scott, C. Drummond-Main et al., “Inorganic polyphosphate regulates neuronal excitability through modulation of voltage-gated channels,” Molecular Brain, vol. 7, no. 1, p. 42, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Zakharian, B. Thyagarajan, R. J. French, E. Pavlov, T. Rohacs, and H. Matsunami, “Inorganic polyphosphate modulates TRPM8 channels,” PLoS ONE, vol. 4, no. 4, p. e5404, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Pavlov, R. Aschar-Sobbi, M. Campanella, R. J. Turner, M. R. Gómez-García, and A. Y. Abramov, “Inorganic polyphosphate and energy metabolism in mammalian cells,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 285, no. 13, pp. 9420–9428, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Dhivya, A. Keshav Narayan, R. Logith Kumar, S. Viji Chandran, M. Vairamani, and N. Selvamurugan, “Proliferation and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells on scaffolds containing chitosan, calcium polyphosphate and pigeonite for bone tissue engineering,” Cell Proliferation, vol. 51, no. 1, p. e12408, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Wang, H. C. Schröder, and W. E. Müller, “Enzymatically synthesized inorganic polymers as morphogenetically active bone scaffolds: application in regenerative medicine,” International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology, vol. 313, pp. 27–77, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Wang, H. C. Schröder, U. Schlossmacher, and W. E. Müller, “Inorganic Polyphosphates: Biologically Active Biopolymers for Biomedical Applications,” in Biomedical Inorganic Polymers, vol. 54 of Progress in Molecular and Subcellular Biology, pp. 261–294, Springer, Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. H. Morrissey and S. A. Smith, “Polyphosphate as modulator of hemostasis, thrombosis, and inflammation,” Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, vol. 13, pp. S92–S97, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. J. Travers, S. A. Smith, and J. H. Morrissey, “Polyphosphate, platelets, and coagulation,” International Journal of Laboratory Hematology, vol. 37, pp. 31–35, 2015.
View at: Google Scholar
S. M. Hassanian, A. Avan, and A. Ardeshirylajimi, “Inorganic polyphosphate: a key modulator of inflammation,” Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 213–218, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. L. Lui, C. K. Ao, L. Li, M. Khong, and J. A. Tanner, “Inorganic polyphosphate triggers upregulation of interleukin 11 in human osteoblast-like SaOS-2 cells,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 479, no. 4, pp. 766–771, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Harada, H. Itoh, Y. Kawazoe et al., “Polyphosphate-mediated inhibition of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase and suppression of bone resorption of osteoclasts,” PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 11, Article ID e78612, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Albi and A. Serrano, “Inorganic polyphosphate in the microbial world. Emerging roles for a multifaceted biopolymer,” World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 32, no. 2, p. 27, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. A. Smith and J. H. Morrissey, “Polyphosphate: a new player in the field of hemostasis,” Current Opinion in Hematology, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 388–394, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. J. Mutch, “Polyphosphate as a haemostatic modulator,” Biochemical Society Transactions, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 18–24, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. H. Morrissey, “Polyphosphate: a link between platelets, coagulation and inflammation,” International Journal of Hematology, vol. 95, no. 4, pp. 346–352, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. H. Morrissey, S. H. Choi, and S. A. Smith, “Polyphosphate: an ancient molecule that links platelets, coagulation, and inflammation,” Blood, vol. 119, no. 25, pp. 5972–5979, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. J. Baker, S. A. Smith, and J. H. Morrissey, “Polyphosphate in thrombosis, hemostasis, and inflammation. Research and practice in thrombosis and haemostasis,” Research and Practice in Thrombosis and Haemostasis, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 18–25, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Wang, H. C. Schröder, and W. E. Müller, “Polyphosphate as a metabolic fuel in Metazoa: A foundational breakthrough invention for biomedical applications,” Biotechnology Journal, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 11–30, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Morimoto, T. Tomita, S. Kuroda et al., “Inorganic polyphosphate differentiates human mesenchymal stem cells into osteoblastic cells,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 418–423, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Lee, S. Kang, H. Do et al., “Enhancement of bone regeneration by gene delivery of BMP2/Runx2 bicistronic vector into adipose-derived stromal cells,” Biomaterials, vol. 31, no. 21, pp. 5652–5659, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Hu, W. Liu, H. Li et al., “A Runx2/miR-3960/miR-2861 regulatory feedback loop during mouse osteoblast differentiation,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 286, no. 14, pp. 12328–12339, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. G. Müller, M. Neufurth, S. Wang et al., “Amorphous, smart, and bioinspired polyphosphate nano/microparticles: a biomaterial for regeneration and repair of osteo-articular impairments in-situ,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 19, no. 2, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. Zhou, Q. Zheng, F. Engin et al., “Dominance of SOX9 function over RUNX2 during skeletogenesis,” Proceedings of the National Acadamy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 103, no. 50, pp. 19004–19009, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. Zellin and A. Linde, “Effects of recombinant human fibroblast growth factor-2 on osteogenic cell populations during orthopic osteogenesis in vivo,” Bone, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 161–168, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Kawazoe, S. Katoh, Y. Onodera, T. Kohgo, M. Shindoh, and T. Shiba, “Activation of the FGF signaling pathway and subsequent induction of mesenchymal stem cell differentiation by inorganic polyphosphate,” International Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 37–47, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Ozeki, M. Mogi, N. Hase et al., “Polyphosphate-induced matrix metalloproteinase-13 is required for osteoblast-like cell differentiation in human adipose tissue derived mesenchymal stem cells,” Bioscience Trends, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 365–371, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Hiyama, N. Ozeki, N. Hase et al., “Polyphosphate-induced matrix metalloproteinase-3-mediated differentiation in rat dental pulp fibroblast-like cells,” Bioscience Trends, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 360–366, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Ozeki, H. Yamaguchi, N. Hase et al., “Polyphosphate-induced matrix metalloproteinase-3-mediated proliferation in rat dental pulp fibroblast-like cells is mediated by a Wnt5 signaling cascade,” Bioscience Trends, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 160–168, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Jang and H. Jeong, “Histone deacetylase inhibition-mediated neuronal differentiation via the Wnt signaling pathway in human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells,” Neuroscience Letters, vol. 668, pp. 24–30, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Wang, H. C. Schröder, V. Grebenjuk et al., “The marine sponge-derived inorganic polymers, biosilica and polyphosphate, as morphogenetically active matrices/scaffolds for the differentiation of human multipotent stromal cells: potential application in 3D printing and distraction osteogenesis,” Marine Drugs, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 1131–1147, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Yu, H. Pan, Y. Hu, H. Tao, K. Wang, and C. Zhang, “Autologous platelet-rich plasma induces bone formation of tissue-engineered bone with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells on beta-tricalcium phosphate ceramics,” Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research, vol. 12, no. 1, Article ID 29157270, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Kabiri, B. Hashemibeni, A. Pourazar, M. Mardani, E. Esfandiari, and A. Esmaeili, “Platelet-rich plasma application in chondrogenesis,” Advanced Biomedical Research, vol. 3, no. 1, article no. 138, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Mishra, P. Tummala, A. King et al., “Buffered platelet-rich plasma enhances mesenchymal stem cell proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation,” Tissue Engineering Part C: Methods, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 431–435, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Wang, Y. Weng, S. Guo et al., “Platelet-rich plasma inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation through activation of Wnt pathway during bone remodeling,” International Journal of Molecular Medicine, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 729–738, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Bruedigam, M. Eijken, M. Koedam et al., “A new concept underlying stem cell lineage skewing that explains the detrimental effects of thiazolidinediones on bone,” Stem Cells, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 916–927, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Kawazoe, T. Shiba, R. Nakamura et al., “Induction of calcification in MC3T3-E1 cells by inorganic polyphosphate,” Journal of Dental Research, vol. 83, no. 8, pp. 613–618, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Müller, X. Wang, B. Diehl-Seifert et al., “Inorganic polymeric phosphate/polyphosphate as an inducer of alkaline phosphatase and a modulator of intracellular Ca2+ level in osteoblasts (SaOS-2 cells) in vitro,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 2661–2671, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Banovac and E. Koren, “Triiodothyronine stimulates the release of membrane-bound alkaline phosphatase in osteoblastic cells,” Calcified Tissue International, vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 460–465, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Li, M. L. Khong, E. L. Lui et al., “Long-chain polyphosphate in osteoblast matrix vesicles: Enrichment and inhibition of mineralization,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects, vol. 1863, no. 1, pp. 199–209, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Omelon, J. Georgiou, F. Variola, and M. N. Dean, “Colocation and role of polyphosphates and alkaline phosphatase in apatite biomineralization of elasmobranch tesserae,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 3899–3910, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Usui, T. Uematsu, T. Uchihashi et al., “Inorganic polyphosphate induces osteoblastic differentiation,” Journal of Dental Research, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 504–509, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Sun, H. Zou, L. Yang et al., “Inorganic polyphosphates stimulate FGF23 expression through the FGFR pathway,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 428, no. 2, pp. 298–302, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Bergwitz and H. Jüppner, “Regulation of phosphate homeostasis by PTH, vitamin D, and FGF23,” Annual Review of Medicine, vol. 61, pp. 91–104, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Shalhoub, S. C. Ward, B. Sun et al., “Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) and α-klotho stimulate osteoblastic MC3T3.E1 cell proliferation and inhibit mineralization,” Calcified Tissue International, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 140–150, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Omelon, J. Georgiou, Z. J. Henneman et al., “Control of vertebrate skeletal mineralization by polyphosphates,” PLoS ONE, vol. 4, no. 5, Article ID e5634, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. J. Janckila and L. T. Yam, “Biology and clinical significance of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatases: new perspectives on an old enzyme,” Calcified Tissue International, vol. 85, no. 6, pp. 465–483, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Ljusberg, Y. Wang, P. Lång et al., “Proteolytic excision of a repressive loop domain in tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase by cathepsin K in osteoclasts,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 280, no. 31, pp. 28370–28381, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. Zhou, J.-Y. Han, C.-X. Xi et al., “HMGB1 regulates RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis in a manner dependent on RAGE,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, vol. 23, no. 7, pp. 1084–1096, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. H. Lee and H.-H. Kim, “Signal transduction by receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B in osteoclasts,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 305, no. 2, pp. 211–214, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Wang, H. C. Schröder, B. Diehl-Seifert et al., “Dual effect of inorganic polymeric phosphate/polyphosphate on osteoblasts and osteoclasts in vitro,” Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, vol. 7, no. 10, pp. 767–776, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Sung, A. Murakami, B. O. Oyajobi, and B. B. Aggarwal, “Zerumbone abolishes RANKL-induced NF-κB activation, inhibits osteoclastogenesis, and suppresses human breast cancer–induced bone loss in athymic nude mice,” Cancer Research, vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 1477–1484, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Kinner, R. M. Capita, and M. Spector, “Regeneration of articular cartilage,” Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology, vol. 94, pp. 91–123, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. St-Pierre, Q. Wang, S. Q. Li, R. M. Pilliar, and R. A. Kandel, “Inorganic polyphosphate stimulates cartilage tissue formation,” Tissue Engineering Part A, vol. 18, no. 11-12, pp. 1282–1292, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Shiba, D. Nishimura, Y. Kawazoe et al., “Modulation of mitogenic activity of fibroblast growth factors by inorganic polyphosphate,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 278, no. 29, pp. 26788–26792, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Ciolfi, “Chondrocyte interactions with porous titanium alloy and calcium polyphosphate substrates,” Biomaterials, vol. 24, no. 26, pp. 4761–4770, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Müller, H. C. Schröder, E. Tolba, B. Diehl-Seifert, and X. Wang, “Mineralization of bone-related SaOS-2 cells under physiological hypoxic conditions,” FEBS Journal, vol. 283, no. 1, pp. 74–87, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Müller, E. Tolba, H. C. Schröder, B. Diehl-Seifert, and X. Wang, “Retinol encapsulated into amorphous Ca2+ polyphosphate nanospheres acts synergistically in MC3T3-E1 cells,” European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, vol. 93, pp. 214–223, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Muller, E. Tolba, Q. Feng et al., “Amorphous Ca2+ polyphosphate nanoparticles regulate the ATP level in bone-like SaOS-2 cells,” Journal of Cell Science, vol. 128, no. 11, pp. 2202–2207, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Müller, S. Wang, M. Neufurth et al., “Polyphosphate as a donor of high-energy phosphate for the synthesis of ADP and ATP,” Journal of Cell Science, vol. 130, no. 16, pp. 2747–2756, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Wang, M. Ackermann, E. Tolba et al., “Artificial cartilage bio-matrix formed of hyaluronic acid and Mg2+-polyphosphate,” European Cells & Materials, vol. 29, no. 32, pp. 271–283, 2016.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Li, J. Wang, Y. Wang, W. Du, and S. Wang, “Transplantation of copper-doped calcium polyphosphate scaffolds combined with copper (II) preconditioned bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells for bone defect repair,” Journal of Biomaterials Applications, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 738–753, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Fiorilli, G. Molino, C. Pontremoli et al., “The incorporation of strontium to improve bone-regeneration ability of mesoporous bioactive glasses,” Materials, vol. 11, no. 5, p. 678, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. Montalbano, S. Fiorilli, A. Caneschi, and C. Vitale-Brovarone, “Type I collagen and strontium-containing mesoporous glass particles as hybrid material for 3D printing of bone-like materials,” Materials, vol. 11, no. 5, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Müller, E. Tolba, M. Ackermann et al., “Fabrication of amorphous strontium polyphosphate microparticles that induce mineralization of bone cells in vitro and in vivo,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 50, pp. 89–101, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Wang, J. Huang, K. Wang et al., “The morphogenetically active polymer, inorganic polyphosphate complexed with GdCl 3, as an inducer of hydroxyapatite formation in vitro,” Biochemical Pharmacology, vol. 102, pp. 97–106, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Ma, Y. Li, J. Hao, B. Ma, T. Di, and H. Dong, “Evaluation of the degradation, biocompatibility and osteogenesis behavior of lithium-doped calcium polyphosphate for bone tissue engineering,” Bio-Medical Materials and Engineering, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 23–36, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Qiu, X. J. Zhao, C. X. Wan, C. S. Zhao, and Y. W. Chen, “Effect of strontium ions on the growth of ROS17/2.8 cells on porous calcium polyphosphate scaffolds,” Biomaterials, vol. 27, no. 8, pp. 1277–1286, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Tian, F. Chen, W. Song et al., “In vivo study of porous strontium-doped calcium polyphosphate scaffolds for bone substitute applications,” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, vol. 20, no. 7, pp. 1505–1512, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Liu, X. Zhang, X. Yu, Y. Xu, T. Feng, and D. Ren, “In vitro study in stimulating the secretion of angiogenic growth factors of strontium-doped calcium polyphosphate for bone tissue engineering,” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 683–692, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Qin, Z. Yang, L. Li et al., “A promising scaffold with excellent cytocompatibility and pro-angiogenesis action for dental tissue engineering: Strontium-doped calcium polyphosphate,” Dental Materials Journal, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 241–249, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. Gu, X. Zhang, L. Li et al., “Acceleration of segmental bone regeneration in a rabbit model by strontium-doped calcium polyphosphate scaffold through stimulating VEGF and bFGF secretion from osteoblasts,” Materials Science & Engineering C, Materials for Biological Applications, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 274–281, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Kang, X. Xie, Z. Tan et al., “Repairing defect and preventing collapse of femoral head in a steroid-induced osteonecrotic of femoral head animal model using strontium-doped calcium polyphosphate combined BM-MNCs,” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 80, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Müller, E. Tolba, H. C. Schröder, R. Muñoz-Espí, B. Diehl-Seifert, and X. Wang, “Amorphous polyphosphate-hydroxyapatite: A morphogenetically active substrate for bone-related SaOS-2 cells in vitro,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 31, pp. 358–367, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Kato, K. Morita, I. Hirata et al., “Enhancement of calcification by osteoblasts cultured on hydroxyapatite surfaces with adsorbed inorganic polyphosphate,” in In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology Animal, vol. 54, pp. 449–457, Springer, 6 edition, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Wang, M. Ackermann, S. Wang et al., “Amorphous polyphosphate/amorphous calcium carbonate implant material with enhanced bone healing efficacy in a critical-size defect in rats,” Biomedical Materials, vol. 11, no. 3, Article ID 035005, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Luo, D. Li, X. Xie, and P. Kang, “Porous, lithium-doped calcium polyphosphate composite scaffolds containing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-loaded gelatin microspheres for treating glucocorticoid-induced osteonecrosis of the femoral head,” Biomedical Materials, vol. 14, no. 3, Article ID 035013, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Rouhrazi, N. Turgan, and G. Oktem, “Zoledronic acid overcomes chemoresistance by sensitizing cancer stem cells to apoptosis,” Biotechnic and Histochemistry: Official Publication of The Biological Stain Commission, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 77–88, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Niraula, A. J. Templeton, F. Vera-Badillo et al., “Duration of suppression of bone turnover following treatment with zoledronic acid in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer,” Future Science OA, vol. 4, no. 1, Article ID FSO253, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. T. Wu, T. Aoki, M. Sakoda et al., “Enhancing osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells by immobilizing inorganic polyphosphate onto hyaluronic acid hydrogel,” Biomacromolecules, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 166–173, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. G. Muller, S. Wang, E. Tolba et al., “Transformation of amorphous polyphosphate nanoparticles into coacervate complexes: an approach for the encapsulation of mesenchymal stem cells,” Small, vol. 14, no. 27, Article ID e1801170, 2018.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Neufurth, X. Wang, S. Wang et al., “3D printing of hybrid biomaterials for bone tissue engineering: Calcium-polyphosphate microparticles encapsulated by polycaprolactone,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 64, pp. 377–388, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Neufurth, X. Wang, H. C. Schröder et al., “Engineering a morphogenetically active hydrogel for bioprinting of bioartificial tissue derived from human osteoblast-like SaOS-2 cells,” Biomaterials, vol. 35, no. 31, pp. 8810–8819, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. E. Muller, M. Neufurth, S. Wang et al., “Morphogenetically active scaffold for osteochondral repair (polyphosphate/alginate/N,O-carboxymethyl chitosan),” European Cells & Materials, vol. 31, pp. 174–190, 2016.
View at: Google Scholar
W. E. Müller, M. Ackermann, E. Tolba et al., “A bio-imitating approach to fabricate an artificial matrix for cartilage tissue engineering using magnesium-polyphosphate and hyaluronic acid,” RSC Advances, vol. 6, no. 91, pp. 88559–88570, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. D. Lee, R. Gawri, R. M. Pilliar, W. L. Stanford, and R. A. Kandel, “Sol gel-derived hydroxyapatite films over porous calcium polyphosphate substrates for improved tissue engineering of osteochondral-like constructs,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 62, pp. 352–361, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. S. Allan, R. M. Pilliar, J. Wang, M. Grynpas, and R. Kandel, “Formation of biphasic constructs containing cartilage with a calcified zone interface,” Tissue Engineering Part A, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 167–177, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. M. Pilliar, R. A. Kandel, M. D. Grynpas et al., “Osteochondral defect repair using a novel tissue engineering approach: sheep model study,” Technology and Health Care: Official Journal of the European Society for Engineering and Medicine, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 47–56, 2007.
View at: Google Scholar
J. St-Pierre, R. M. Pilliar, M. D. Grynpas, and R. A. Kandel, “Calcification of cartilage formed in vitro on calcium polyphosphate bone substitutes is regulated by inorganic polyphosphate,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 6, no. 8, pp. 3302–3309, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. D. Waldman, M. D. Grynpas, R. M. Pilliar, and R. A. Kandel, “Characterization of cartilagenous tissue formed on calcium polyphosphate substratesin vitro,” Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 323–330, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. St-Pierre, L. Gan, J. Wang, R. M. Pilliar, M. D. Grynpas, and R. A. Kandel, “The incorporation of a zone of calcified cartilage improves the interfacial shear strength between in vitro-formed cartilage and the underlying substrate,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 1603–1615, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Y. Park, S. H. Park, M. G. Kim et al., “Biomimetic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering,” in Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 1064, pp. 109–121, Springer, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. M. Aamodt and D. W. Grainger, “Extracellular matrix-based biomaterial scaffolds and the host response,” Biomaterials, vol. 86, pp. 68–82, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. Fan and J. Guan, “Antifibrotic therapies to control cardiac fibrosis,” Biomaterials Research, vol. 20, no. 13, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Liao, K. Shi, Q. Ding, Y. Qu, F. Luo, and Z. Qian, “Recent developments in scaffold-guided cartilage tissue regeneration,” Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology, vol. 10, no. 10, pp. 3085–3104, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. V. Dorozhkin, “Bioceramics of calcium orthophosphates,” Biomaterials, vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 1465–1485, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. T. Smith, J. Shum, M. Wong et al., “Bone tissue engineering challenges in oral & maxillofacial surgery,” in Engineering Mineralized and Load Bearing Tissues, vol. 881, pp. 57–78, Springer, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Hu, Y. Zhu, H. Tong, X. Shen, L. Chen, and J. Ran, “A detailed study of homogeneous agarose/hydroxyapatite nanocomposites for load-bearing bone tissue,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 82, pp. 134–143, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Mikami, H. Tsuda, Y. Akiyama et al., “Alkaline phosphatase determines polyphosphate-induced mineralization in a cell-type independent manner,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 627–637, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2019 Yan Wang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

1905

Downloads

1776

Citations