Prospects for Malaria Vaccines: Pre-Erythrocytic Stages, Blood Stages, and Transmission-Blocking Stages

Table 1

List of Plasmodium vaccines in pre-erythrocytic stages, blood stages, and transmission-blocking stages.

Vaccine group	Vaccine name	Vaccine type	Malarial antigen targeted	Mechanism of action	References
Pre-erythrocytic vaccines	PfCSP vaccines	Subunit vaccines	PfCSP	Antibodies to PfCSP block the sporozoite invasion of liver cells	[5, 6]
	RTS,S/AS01 and RTS,S/AS02		Hepatitis B surface antigen and the central repeat and C-terminal regions of CSP	Protective immune responses after vaccination with RTS,S are dependent primarily on antibody responses against the central repeat region	[7–11]
	PfCSP bacteria vaccines		PfCSP	Bacteria need assistance to stimulate the innate immune system	[12, 13]
	TRAP vaccines	Subunit vaccines	SSP-2	Antibodies to SSP-2 block the invasion of mosquito salivary glands and hepatocytes	[14]
	LSA vaccines	Subunit vaccines	LSA-1/LSA-3	Elicit a pre-erythrocyte antigen response in the majority of individuals from different age groups	[15–18]
	PfSPZ vaccines	Live attenuated vaccines	PfSPZ	Antibodies to PfSPZ block the parasite arrival to the liver or during their development in this organ	[3]
Asexual blood-stage vaccines	MSP1 vaccines	Subunit vaccines	MSP142/MSP138/MSP183	Antibodies to MSP1 to block the parasite invasion of erythrocyte	[19]
	AMA-1 vaccines	Subunit vaccines	AMA-1	AMA-1 plays an essential role in parasite survival. Antibodies to AMA-1 may kill the parasite	[20–22]
	Rh5 vaccines	Subunit vaccines	Rh5	Antibodies to Rh5 block the parasite invasion of erythrocyte by forming complex with cyrpa and ripr	[23–25]
Transmission-blocking vaccines	Pfs25 vaccines	Subunit vaccines	Pfs25	Pfs25 is the target on which the parasite survives and interacts with the mosquito midgut. Antibodies to Pfs25 control the transmission of malaria parasites from human hosts to the mosquito vectors	[26–28]
	Pfs48/45 vaccines	Subunit vaccines	Pfs48/45 C-terminus	Pfs48/45 is the target on which male gamete attaches to female gamete. Antibodies to Pfs48/45 can induce transmission-blocking antibody response during infection	[29]