|
Nonsurgical treatment | Medical treatment | Molecular target | References |
|
| Steroids (such as glucocorticoids) | Anti-inflammation | [75–77] |
| Corticosteroid (such as hydrocortisone and dexamethasone) | Anti-inflammation | [78–80] |
| Hyaluronidase | Hydrolyzed hyaluronic acid, reduced collagen formation | [81–83] |
| Chymotrypsin | Hydrolyzed collagen | [84] |
| Collagenase | Hydrolyzed collagen | [85] |
| Colchicine | Anti-inflammatory neutralizing cytokines (TGF-β, IL-4), increased collagen hydrolysis activity | [86] |
| Traditional Chinese medicine (such as Salvia miltiorrhiza) | Anti-inflammation, activating blood circulation to dissipate blood stasis | [46] |
| Physiotherapy | Molecular target | References |
| Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO) | Promote fibroblast apoptosis, inhibit fibroblast activity, and anti-inflammation and antioxidation | [49–51, 87] |
| Photodynamic therapy (PDT) | Laser irradiation at a specific wavelength causes an oxidation reaction, resulting in cytotoxicity, cell damage, and death | [53–55] |
| EZBite opening device | Improve triceps, improve mouth opening | [47] |
| Nutritional support | Molecular target | References |
| Ginger butter resin, ginger butter, and turmeric extract | Anti-inflammation; antioxidation; inhibit p53, TGF-β, and iNOS; reduce CTGF | [57–59, 88] |
| Lycopene | Inhibit fibroblast activity, anti-inflammation, strong antioxidation | [59] |
| Honey | Anti-inflammation, antioxidation | [60] |
Surgical treatment | Reconstruction of defect area | Advantage | References |
| Split-thickness skin graft | Early application | [61] |
| Bilateral nasolabial flap | Easy to lift, close to the defect, with minimal swallowing and speech difficulties | [62–65] |
| Buccal fat pad | Postoperative complication rate is low and scar formation is low | [66, 67] |
| Platysma myocutaneous flap | Less scar formation | [89] |
| Superficial temporal fascial flap + skin graft coverage | Postoperative appearance and good mouth opening | [90] |
Stem cell therapy | Stem cell source | Molecular target | References |
| Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, dental pulp stem cells, adipose mesenchymal stem cells, etc. | Release cytokines and growth factors to achieve neovascularization; enhance the ability of antioxidants to scavenge free radicals; remove senescent cells in lesions | [68, 69] |
|