Roles of Bile-Derived Exosomes in Hepatobiliary Disease

Figure 2

Isolation and characterization of exosomes from various humoral sources. There is no “gold-standard” protocol for exosome isolation. Exosomes from various body fluids are extracted based on a similar process: cells and cell fragments are removed by low-speed centrifugation, and the supernatant is filtered by nanofiltration; the exosomes are then precipitated by ultracentrifugation. Finally, the exosomes are washed (not shown in the figure). All operations are performed at low temperature (4°C). Exosomes are identified by three methods: TEM, NTA, and WB. It is important to note that exosomes from each humoral source have their own unique features that need to be monitored during the isolation.