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Vaccine platform | Immunogen | Animal model | Route of injection | Adjuvant | Advantage | Disadvantage |
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Inactivated | Whole virus (i) Inactivated by formaldehyde or gamma irradiation | Mice | IM | Alum and CpG ODN | (i) Excellence in neutralizing Ab induction | (i) Possible cause hypersensitivity-type lung |
(ii) Can be combined with different adjuvant | (ii) Possible Th2-bias |
(iii) Cannot employ cell-mediated immunity |
Live-attenuated virus | Mutant MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV | Mice, rhesus macaques | IN, IP | — | (i) Excellence in the induction of T and B cell responses | (i) Risk of relapse |
(ii) Site-directed mutagenesis can be tailor-made | (ii) Cold chain required |
(iii) Not suitable or sensitive population such as infants, immunocompromised, or elderly individuals |
Subunit | Full-length spike, S1, RDB, nucleocapsid (i) Formulated with various adjuvants and/or fused with Fc | Mice, rhesus macaques | SC, IM, IN | MF59, Ontanide, Freund’s adjuvant, alum, monophosphoryl lipid A, Montanide ISA51, CpG ODN | (i) High safety profile | (i) Need appropriate adjuvant |
(ii) Continuous production | (ii) Cost-effectiveness may change |
(iii) Induction of high titers of neutralizing antibodies |
(iv) Local mucosal immune responses were observed in mice immunized through IN route |
DNA | Full-length spike or S1 (i) IM follow by electroporation | Mice, camels and rhesus macaques | IM | Without adjuvant | (i) Fast production | (i) Efficient delivery system required |
(ii) Simple design and manipulation | (ii) Induce lower immune responses when compared with a live vaccine |
(iii) Initiate both B and T cell responses |
Viral vector | Full-length spike or S1 (i) Vector used: ChAd or MVA | Mice, Bactrian camels | IM | CD40L | (i) Excellence in immune induction | (i) Different inoculation routes may produce different immune responses |
(ii) Possible TH2 bias |
Virus-like particles | RDB, S, or coexpressing of S1, M, and E | Rhesus macaques, mice | IM | Alum, poly(I:C) CpG ODN | (i) Multimeric antigen display | (i) Need optimum assembly condition |
(ii) Maintain virus particle structure |
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