BioMK Diseases Procedure NPs used LoD Reference Cancerous complications miRNA-182 Cancer of the lung ETC Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2 )/Ti3C2 nanohybrids and modified GCE 0.43 fM [75 ] miR-106a and let-7a Gastric cancer ETC AuNP and cadmium selenide (CdSe) @ cadmium sulphide (CdS) QTD-contained magnetic NCs (NCs) polythiophene/reduced graphene (GP) oxide-modified GCE 0.02 fM for let-7a and 0.06 fM for miR-106a [76 ] CXCL5 Colorectal cancerous cells CXCL5 ETC impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and voltammetry (VTM) Chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2) attached to conducting polymer-AuNP film [77 ] miR-199a-5p Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) ETC GCE with GP oxide (GPO) and Au nanorod 4.50 fM [78 ] HER-2 Breast cancer ETC AuNP grafted functionalized GP and NS polyaniline (PANI) 2 cells mL−1 [79 ] miR-155 Breast cancer ETC GPO and Au nanorod 0.60 fM [80 ] BRCA1 Breast cancer Cyclic VTM ssDNA probe (BRCA1)/PANHS (polycyclic aromatic nitrogen heterocycles)/multiwalled CN/GCE [81 ] MUC1 Human non-small-cell lung cancerous cells Amperometric (APM) MUC1 aptamer probe and benzoic acid (TTBA) on AuNPs 8 cells/mL [82 ] MAGE A2 Lung cancer ETC Graphite/CN-chitosan/Ag (silver)/AB 5.00 fg mL−1 [83 ] CpG islands of adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) Colorectal cancer FRS Ferrosoferric oxide (Fe3 O4 )/Au core/shell NPs [84 ] Metabolic diseases Uric acid (UA) Neuropapillitis, neurodegenerative diseases, sclerosis, and aplastic anaemia ETC Au/cobalt (Co) bimetallic NPs decorated hollow nanoporous carbon framework (Au/Co@HNCF) 0.023 μ M [85 ] Glucose Diabetes (DBT) ETC Copper (Cu)-nanoflower decorated AuNPs-GO nanofiber (NF) 0.018 μ M [86 ] Vaspin Type-2 DBT FRS Upconverting NPs (UC NPs) 39.00 pg mL−1 [87 ] Ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DA), uric acid (UA), and acetaminophen (AC) Scurvy, neurodisorders ETC Cerium oxide (CeO2 ) NPs-decorated CN 3.10 nM for AA, 2.60 nM for DA, 2.40 nM for UA, and 4.40 nM for AC [88 ] Vitamin D3 Rickets and cardiovascular diseases (CD) ETC Cu NPs-nickel NPs at reduced fullerene-C60 on GCE 0.0025 μ M [89 ] Leptin Nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFLD) ETC Bovine serum albumin (BSA)/anti-leptin/glutaraldehyde (Glu)/cysteamine (Cys)/AuNPs/porous GP (PGP)-BP (black phosphorus)/GCE immunosensor (IMSS) was employed 0.036 pg/mL [90 ] Glucose DBT ETC Carbon quantum dot (CQD)/Au NPs and glucose oxidase (GOx) enzymes 17.00 μ M [91 ] 3-Hydroxybutyrate (3-HB) Hyperketonemia and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) APM Immobilization of the enzymes 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase onto a screen-printed GCE modified with GPO and thionine (THI) 1.00 μ M [92 ] Glucose DBT APM Glucose oxidase immobilized on GPO-Fe3 O4 0.10 μ M [93 ] Creatinine Protracted kidney infection, CD, and type 2 DBT APM Immobilization of NPs of creatininase, creatinase, and sarcosine oxidase onto GCE 0.01 μ M [94 ] Neurological diseases Survival motor neuron (SMN) protein Spinal muscular atrophy VTM Carbon NF-modified screen-printed electrodes 0.75 pg/mL [95 ] miR-195 Parkinson’s disease ETC Exfoliated GPO and AuNWs were employed to amend the surface of screen-printed GCE 2.90 fM [96 ] APOe4 Alzheimer disease (AD) FRS and ETC Curcumin-GP QD platform coated on the transparent indium-tin-oxide electrode 0.48 pg mL-1 [97 ] Amyloid-β AD FRS Sheet-like structures of GP QD Dependent on the FRS intensity [98 ] miR-145 Multiple sclerosis FRS Ag nanoclusters and hairpin oligonucleotide probes, MB1 and MB2 0.10 nM [99 ] α -1 AntitrypsinAD VTM CN and Ag NPs functionalized with alkaline phosphatase-labeled AB 0.01 pmol L-1 [100 ] Acetylcholine AD VTM Extremely permeable Au electrode functionalized with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) 10.00 μ mol L-1 [101 ] Amyloid-β AD ETC Screen-printed GCE 0.10 ng/mL [102 ] Neonatal diseases C-reactive protein (CRP) Sepsis ETC Magnetic reduced GPO/Ni (nickel)/platinum (Pt) NP micromotor biofunctionalization on the outer layer (using carbon black (CB), reduced GPO, multiwalled CN, and anti-CRP) 0.80 μ g/mL [103 ] Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Thyroid dysfunctioning ETC Screen-printed GCE, anti-TSH AB, and amino-coated Ag NPs 0.001 μ IU/mL [104 ] Bilirubin (BR) Jaundice VTM Reduced GPO oxide-poly styrene sulfonate (PSS) coated upon GCE 2.00 μ M [105 ]
