Research Article
[Retracted] Global Increase in Breast Cancer Incidence: Risk Factors and Preventive Measures
Table 1
Describing the various factors and their consequences which results in risk for breast development.
| Risk factors | Consequences | Ref |
| Early puberty | At puberty, undifferentiated, proliferative breast cells increase rapidly and more exposure to hormonal changes increases susceptibility to mutagens | [210] | Early menarche | At menarche, breast cells tend to grow and divide increasing the risk of breast cancer | [211] | Late marriage age | Prolong exposure to estrogen hormone | [212] | Late child birth age | Lack of breast tissue differentiation and prolong exposure to estrogen hormone | [213] | Lactation failure | Lack of breast tissue differentiation, more susceptible to nonestrogenic mutagens and estrogen | [214] | Late menopause age | Late onset of breast involution and prolong exposure to estrogen and progesterone | [215] | Lack of physical activity | Reduced exposure to sex hormones due to increase the number of anovulatory cycles | [216] | High fat diet | Cholesterol activate estrogen signalling and cell proliferation | [217] | Obesity | Increased levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines | [52] | Alcohol consumption | Increase estrogen hormone | [218] | Smoking | Induce gene mutations such as p53 gene mutation and DNA adducts | [219] | HRT | Prolong exposure to estrogen hormone | [220] | Contraceptive | Contraceptives contain progesterone and estrogen | [221] | Family history | BRCA1/2 gene mutations | [222] | Environmental toxicants | Pollutants can disrupt endocrine signalling | [223] |
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