Research Article
Infrastructure as a Complex Adaptive System
Table 2
Properties of general systems and complex adaptive systems [
10,
12,
16].
| General Systems Theory | Complex Adaptive Systems Theory | Key Properties | Key Properties | Property Category | Hierarchical Level |
| Complicated | Complex | Emergent behaviour and self-organisation | System level | Aggregable with functional decomposition | Emergent with limited functional decomposition | Centralised control | Distributed control | Determinate and Linear | Non-determinate and Non-linear | Instability and robustness |
| Static | Perpetual Dynamics | Dynamics and evolution | Network level | Equilibrium | A Far-from-equilibrium State | Closed | Open | Reversible | Irreversible |
| Rational, deductive behaviour | Adaptive, evolutionary behaviour | Adaptiveness | Agent level | Simplified assumptions and homogenous agents | Diversity among agents and more realistic assumptions | Agent diversity |
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